Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 


Form  L  I 


VMSB 


o- 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


^^^  2  7  ms 


NOV  1 

^'^^^     192, 
•  -^^  7     1929 


I  NOV  3  0  19:^] 
JAN  2  8  1942 

DEC  n  1   '''^'> 


27 


A4q|' 


^s^# 


^ 


:o 


Form  L-9-15m-8,'24      . 


f 


B77 


siATE  mmm..  school, 

boo  RUOaiiZa,  r;f„u. 


ART    OF    TEACHING 


^  Planual 

FOR  TEACHERS,  SUPERINTENDENTS,  TEACHERS'  READING 

CIRCLES,   NORMAL   SCHOOLS,   TRAINING   CLASSES, 

AND   OTHER   PERSONS   INTERESTED   IN  THE 

RIGHT  TRAINING  OF  THE  YOUNG 


BY 


EMERSON   E.   WHITE,  A.M.,  LL.D. 

AUTHOR   OF  A   SERIES    OF   MATHEMATICS,   "  ELEMENTS    OF    PEDAGOGY  ' 
"  SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT,"    ETC. 


30XXOC 


NEW   YORK-:.  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


TO 

E\)t  fflang  2LijousaiitJ3  of  ilTcacljcrs 

WHO   IN   THE    I'AST  THIRTY   YEARS   HAVE   LISTENED 

WITH    KIND    AriKECIATION    TO   THE   AUTHOR'S 

LECTURES    ON    THE    PRINCIPLES    AND 

METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

Cf)is  Folume 

IS    GRAIEKULLY    DEDICATED 


Copyright,  1901,  by 
EMERSON    E.   WHITE. 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 

ART  OF  teaching. 
E-P       8 


STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL, 

PREFACE. 

This  is  not  a  treatise  on  education,  or  even  on  school 
education.  Its  purpose  is  limited  to  the  study  of  one  of 
the  arts  included  in  school  education,  —  t/ie  art  of  teach- 
ing. Teaching  is  only  a  part  of  the  comprehensive 
function  of  the  school,  but  it  is  a  very  important  part, 
and  its  mastery  is  essential  to  success  in  school  train- 
ing. The  narrower  field  has  been  chosen  that  its  survey 
may  be  definite  and  helpful. 

An  obvious  advantage  in  the  separate  treatment  of  the 
art  of  teaching  is  its  practical  removal  from  the  domain 
of  philosophy,  and,  especially,  the  uncertain  philosophy 
of  education.  Many  conscientious  teachers  have  been 
baffled  in  their  earnest  but  vain  attempts  to  apply  some 
new  philosophy  of  education  in  the  details  of  actual 
teaching.  It  can  but  afford  needed  relief  for  such 
teachers  to  see  clearly  that  philosophy  sheds  no  help- 
ful light  on  the  teaching  process,  the  ends  to  be  realized 
being  subjective  and  immediate,  not  objective  and  ulti- 
mate. The  guiding  principles  of  the  art  of  teaching 
are  chiefly  derived  from  psychology,  and  happily  from 
its  facts. 

In  the  study  of  methods  it  has  been  the  author's  aim 
to  treat  thoroughly  and  practically  those  that  are  ge- 
neric and  comprehensive,  presenting  them  in  the  light  of 
the  fundamental  principles  of  teaching  and  also  in  the 
light  of  the  best  practical  experience.      Special  pains 

3 


4  PREFACE. 

have  been  taken  to  point  out  the  functions  and  limita- 
tions of  special  methods,  and  this  with  the  view  of 
guarding  teachers  against  the  error  of  accepting  them 
as  general  methods,  and  making  them  hobbies. 

But  the  treatise  is  not  a  manual  of  methods  and 
devices.  It  is  increasingly  clear  that  what  is  needed  to 
attain  higher  success  in  teaching  is  not  the  copying  of 
pattern  methods,  but  a  clear  grasp  by  teachers  of  the 
fundamental  principles  of  their  art,  and  a  more  intelli- 
gent and  conscientious  application  of  these  guiding 
principles  in  practice.  The  vital  need  of  school  train- 
ing is  to  be  grojinded.  To  this  end  it  has  been  the 
author's  earnest  endeavor  to  present  what  is  fundamen- 
tal in  the  art  of  teaching  in  a  clear,  practical,  and  help- 
ful manner. 

The  present  volume  supplements  the  author's  earlier 
treatise,  the  Elements  of  Pedagogy,  which  has  been 
so  widely  useful  in  establishing  sound  principles  of 
teaching.  It  is  also  the  complement  of  the  author's 
School  Management,  chiefly  devoted  to  school  organ- 
ization and  discipline  and  moral  training ;  and  it  is 
hoped  that  it  may  be  at  least  equally  useful  in  the  im- 
provement of  school  training.  The  two  volumes  present 
the  two  most  important  elements  in  school  education. 

Columbus,  Ohio, 


CONTENTS. 


/ 


CHAPTER 

I.    Introduction    .... 
II.    Ends  in  Teaching    . 

A  Trinity  of  Ends    . 
HI.     A  Trinity  of  Principles 

Principle  One 

Principle  Two 

Principle  Three 
IV.     A  Trinity  of  Processes 
/  Teaching  Exercises 

'     V.     Methods  of  Instruction 

Objective  Method    . 

Indirect  or  Socratic  Method     . 

Direct  or  Telling  Method 
VI.     Other  Methods  of  Instruction 

Analytic  and  Synthetic    . 

Inductive  and  Deductive 

Concentration  and  Correlation 

Special  Methods 
VII.    The  Drill 

Abuses  of  the  DrilL__^__ 
VIII.     The  Test  . 

Modes  of  Testing    . 
IX.     Oral  Instruction     . 

Instruction  Independent  of  Text-book 

Teacher's  Preparation 

The  Lesson 

Reproduction  of  Lesson  by  Pupils 
X.     Instruction  and  Book  Study 

Proper  Use  of  Text-books 

Instruction  based  on  Text-book 

The  Art  of  Study     . 

XI.  Class  Instruction    . 

Merits  and  Advantages    . 

XII.  Teaching  Pupils  in  Classes 

Methods  of  Calling  on  Pupils 

Consecutive  Method     . 

Promiscuous  Method    . 

Simultaneous  Method  . 
Class  Teaching  an  Important  Art 

5 


PAGE 

7 

22 
26 
32 

34 
39 
48 

52 
54 
58 
59 
62 

67 
72 
72 

74 
76 
80 


90 

95 
102 
104 
105 
no 
112 
117 
121 
123 
130 
132 
138 
143 
144 

145 
148 

154 
156 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER 

XIII.  Written  Exercises 

Written  Tests 

XIV.  Promotion  Examinations 

Teaching  Tests 
XV.     Primary  Reading 

Principles  and  Methods 
XVI.    First  Lessons  in  Reading    . 
Union  of  Methods 
Second  and  Third  Reader  Grades 
Reading  in  Higlier  Grades 
XVII.     Language  Training 
Guiding  Principles 
Ends  and  Principles 
XVIII.     Language  Training  {co7ithmed) 
Materials  and  Methods  . 
Outline  of  Synthetic  Exercises 
The  Rural  School 
XIX.    Arithmetic     .... 
First  Lessons  in  Number 
The  Primary  Course  . 
XX.     Arithmetic  {continued) 
The  Elementary  Course 
Grammar  School  Course 
Introduction  to  Algebra 
XXI.    Geography     .... 
Ends  and  Courses 
Oral  Course  in  Home  Geography 
XXII.     Geography  {continued) 

The  Elementary  Book  Course 
Study  of  the  Grand  Divisions 
Map  Drawing 

General  Review  by  Comparison 
Course  in  Physical  Geography 
XXllI.     Other  Branches   . 
Biography      .         r 
United  States  History 
Civics    . 
Economics 
Physiology     . 


1 60 
169 
172 
177 
183 
183 
195 
195 
203 
207 
210 
210 
218 
223 
223 
226 

239 

242 
242 
249 
255 
25s 
262 
268 
271 
271 
275 
281 
281 
285 
288 
291 
294 
297 
297 
299 
301 
303 
304 


IJGIU1AISC10»L. 


THE    ART    OF   TEACHING. 

»o»<oo 


CHAPTER   I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Education  is  a  complex  process.  In  its  widest  sense 
it  includes  all  those  processes,  activities,  and  influences 
that  occasion  subjective  changes  in  man,  Education 
whether  these  changes  are  physical,  mental,  Defined, 
moral,  or  spiritual.  The  home,  the  school,  the  church, 
civil  society,  the  state,  industry,  physical  environment, 
and  all  else  that  touches  man,  are,  in  this  wide  sense, 
educational  agencies,  and  each  contributes  something 
to  the  complex  result  called  education. 

"  Men  are  educated,"  says  Dr.  Fitch,  of  England, 
"  from  infancy  to  the  grave  by  all  the  sights  and  sounds, 
the  joys  and  sorrows,  which  they  encounter,  by  the  char- 
acter and  behavior  of  their  friends,  the  nature  of  their 
surroundings,  and  by  the  books  they  read." 

"In  its  largest  acceptance,". says  John  Stuart  Mill, 
"  education  comprehends  even  the  indirect  effects  pro- 
duced on  character  and  on  the  human  faculties  by  things 
the  direct  purposes  of  which  are  different,  by  laws,  by 
forms  of  government,  by  the  industrial  arts,  by  modes 
of  social  life ;  even  by  physical  facts  not  dependent  on 
the  human  will,  by  climate,  soil,  and  local  position," 

7 


8  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  defines  education  as  "  tiiat  develop- 
ment of  the  individual,  effected  through  his  intellect  and 
will,  which  enables  him  to  combine  with  his  fellow-men 
helpfully  in  performing  the  functions  of  the  institutions 
of  society,  family,  civil  society,  state,  and  church,  only 
a  part,  although  an  important  part,  of  this  education 
being  received  in  the  school ;  other  essential  parts  being 
received  through  the  family,  the  industrial  community, 
the  political  state,  and  the  church." 

Dr.  B.  A.  Hinsdale  defines  education  in  its  widest 
sense  as  "  the  process  of  transformation  wrought  in  a 
man  by  all  the  agents  and  powers  of  whatever  kind  that 
act  on  him  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave." 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  term  education  has,  in  its  wid- 
est significance,  a  large  and  indefinite  content, —  so  large, 
indeed,  that  no  writer  on  education  has  been 

More  ' 

Limited  able  to  get  anything  helpful  out  of  it.  In 
eaning.  Qj-^jgj-  ^-q  treat  cducatiou  either  scientifically  or 
practically,  the  term  must  be  used  in  a  more  limited  and 
definite  sense.  Mr.  Mill  narrows  the  term  to  include 
"  whatever  we  do  for  ourselves,  and  whatever  is  done 
for  us  by  others,  for  the  express  purpose  of  bringing  us 
nearer  to  the  perfection  of  our  nature,"  and  then,  for  his 
immediate  purpose  (the  St.  Andrews  address),  he  limits 
the  term  to  "the  culture  which  each  generation  purposely 
gives  to  those  who  are  to  be  its  successor  in  order  to 
qualify  them  for  at  least  keeping  up  and,  if  possible,  for 
raising  the  improvement  which  has  been  attained." 

"  Education  in  its  ideal  or  formal  aspect,"  says  Dr. 
W.  H.  Payne,  "aims  at  the  realization  of  the  typical 
man,  and  comprises  all  the  agencies  that  can  be  brought 
under  human  control  for  the  attainment  of  this  end  ;  " 
but,  as  a  basis  for  the  science  of  pedagogy,  he  narrows 


INTR  OD  UC  TION.  9 

the  term  to  so  much  of  the  art  of  education  "  as  falls 
within  the  province  of  the  school." 

But  even  school  education  is  a  very  complex  process, 
including  as  it  does  all  the  activities  and  influences  that 
enter  into  school  Hfe.     Some  of  these  factors       school 
are  designed  and  purposely  directed  ;  others     Education. 
are  spontaneouSj'-and  still  others  are  personal  and  uncon- 
scious, as  the   influence  of  teacher  and  fellow-pupils, 
physical  environment,  etc.     Dr.  Bain  found  that  educa- 
tion limited  to  the  work  of  the  school  needed  "  a  little 
more  paring  and  rounding  to  give  it  scientific    form," 
and  so  in  his  "  Science  of  Education  "  he  treats  educa- 
tion "  as  the  arts  and  methods  employed  by  the  school 
master." 

Most  writers  on  education  dodge  aU  attempts  at  defi- 
nition. To  the  reader  is  left  the  discovery  of  the  sense 
in  which  the  term  is  used,  not  always  an  easy  task,  and 
especially  when  the  term  is  used  by  the  same  writer  in 
different  senses.  Instead  of  definition,  writers  on  the 
philosophy  of  education  usually  work  from  some  ulti- 
mate end  to  be  attained,  as  "  the  harmonious  and  equable 
evolution  of  the  human  powers";  "the  preparation  of 
man  for  complete  living  "  ;  "  the  moral  revelation  of 
the  world,"  etc. 

The  term  teaching  has  a  much  narrower  meaning 
than  education  ;  much  narrower  than  school  education  ; 
narrower,  indeed,  than  school  training.  Teach-  Teaching 
ing  is  one  of  the  arts  included  in  education.  Defined. 
Teaching  may  be  defined  as  the  occasioning  of  those 
activities  in  the  learner  that  result  in  knowledge,  power, 
and  skill.  This  is  the  definite  sense  in  which  the  word 
is  used  when  one  speaks  of  teaching  history  or  botany 
or  the  arts  of  reading,  writing,  language,  etc.     Teach- 


lO  THE   ART  OF   TEACHING. 

ing  always  involves  two  factors,  a  teacher  and  a  pupil, 
the  latter  endowed  with  the  power  of  responsive  activ- 
ity, as  well  as  self-activity,  and  hence  teachable.  The 
teacher  may  act  upon  the  pupil  directly,  in  person ;  or 
indirectly,  as  by  means  of  a  book.  The  determining 
element  in  the  teaching  process  is  the  pupil's  activity. 
The  teacher  is  only  the  occasioner  of  this  activity.  It 
is  thus  seen  that  teaching  is  only  a  part  of  school  educa- 
tion. It  is,  however,  an  important  part,  and  its  mastery 
is  essential  to  success  in  school  work. 

It  is  not  meant  that  the  teaching  process  is  in  practice 
always  separate  from  the  other  elements  of  school  train- 
Teaching  ing.  This  is  no  more  true  than  that  memory 
as  an  Art.  qj.  gmotion  is  a  Separate  state  of  conscious- 
ness. There  are,  however,  most  important  pedagogical 
advantages  in  the  separate  consideration  of  teaching  as 
an  art.  Among  these  advantages  is  the  fact  that  teach- 
ing is  thus  practically  removed  from  the  domain  of 
philosophy,  and  especially  the  uncertain  philosophy 
of  education. 

Philosophy  seeks  ultimate  ends,  universal  principles, 
and  these  are  too  remote  and  comprehensive  to  be  a 
Function  of  practical  guide  in  any  of  the  definite  arts, 
Philosophy,  ^j^^  particularly  the  art  of  teaching.  "  Phi- 
losophy bakes  no  bread."  It  may  determine  the  ultimate 
ends  of  human  existence,  and  the  knowledge  essential 
to  their  realization,  but  it  cannot  tell  how  this  knoivledge 
cafi  be  taught.  The  method  of  teaching  a  human  mind 
knowledge  involves  the  process  by  which  the  mind 
acquires  such  knowledge,  and  for  this  we  must  go  to 
psychology.  Philosophy  has  its  pedagogic  value  in  de- 
termining the  ultimate  ends  of  education,  and  thus  the 
general   function  of    the  school,  its   general   course  of 


INTR  OD  UC  TION.  1 1 

Study,  etc.,  but  it  throws  little  light  upon  the  teaching 
process.  "  No  philosophical  study  of  ultimate  ques- 
tions," says  Professor  Royce  of  Harvard  University, 
"has  any  direct  bearing  upon  the  technical  problems 
of  educational  methods  or  upon  the  similarly  praqtical 
problems  of  any  other  art."  It  seems  increasingly  clear 
that  the  so-called  philosophies  of  education,  now  clamor- 
ing for  recognition,  will  never  prove  a  helpful  guide 
in  the  art  of  teaching,  whatever  may  be  their  value  in  the 
other  functions  of  the  school,  and  whatever  may  be  their 
scholastic  value  to  the  student. 

It  may  be  true  that  philosophy  is  far-reaching  enough 
to  touch  all  human  conduct  and  endeavor  ;  that  "  one's 
view  of  the  world  "  is  really  embodied  in  his     „  ., 

■>  Philosophy 

life.  It  does  not,  however,  follow  that  all  and 
men  have  an  intelligent  view  of  the  world, 
much  less  are  consciously  conforming  their  lives  to  such 
a  view.  It  is  certain  that  the  arts  are  not  thus  guided. 
It  is  more  poetic  than  true  to  say  that  the  shoemaker's 
view  of  the  world  shapes  his  last  and  guides  the  process 
of  making  a  shoe.  The  same  is  true  in  the  art  of 
teaching.  The  ends  that  guide  in  the  teaching  pro- 
cess are  immediate,  not  ultimate,  and  the  highest  suc- 
cess may  be  reached  in  the  absence  of  philosophic 
knowledge. 

The  principles  on  which  the  art  of  teaching  is  based 
are  scientific.     Every  branch  of  knowledge,  every  art, 
has  its  principles,  its  science,  and  so  there  are    pj^jiQso  ^ 
many  sciences.     Thus  we  have  a  science  of         and 
chemistry,  a  science  of  mathematics,  a  sci- 
ence  of   music,    etc.      Philosophy  seeks   for   the    ulti- 
mate unity,  the  final  cause  of  all  science,  and  hence 
there  are  many  sciences,  but  only  one  true  philosophy. 


12  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

Philosophy  is  what  Fichte  aptly  calls  "  the  science  of 
science." 

It  is  fortunate  that  the  guiding  principles  of  the 
teaching  art  are  not  the  ultimates  of  philosophy,  for  few 
Philosophic    teachers    are     capable    of    grasping,    much 

Insight.  jggg  Qf  applying,  such  principles.  Philo- 
sophic insight  is  the  highest  form  of  the  reason,  and 
without  this  insight  philosophy  is  empty  and  vain. 
Certainly  no  teacher  is  helped  by  familiarity  with 
philosophic  terms  and  phrases  which  have  no  definite 
content.  On  the  contrary,  many  earnest  teachers  have 
been  confused  and  muddled  by  attempts  to  embody 
some  new  philosophy  of  education  in  actual  teaching. 
Moreover,  if  philosophy  were  the  only  practical  guide 
in  teaching,  only  philosophers  could  be  successful 
teachers,  and  this  would  seem  to  exclude  those  who 
do  not  know  the  true  philosophy ;  and  who  can  be 
certain  here }  The  history  of  philosophy  presents 
one  continued  struggle  of  philosophic  systems,  one 
philosophy  succeeding  another,  the  newer  often  re- 
turning to  the  older,  thus  presenting  what  has  been 
aptly  termed  "  the  cycles  of  philosophy."  Several 
distinct  schools  of  philosophy  are  now  contending  for 
the  control  of  American  education. 

We  are  not  discrediting  the  value  of  philosophy  in 
determining  the  ultimate  ends  and  function  of  school 

Value  of  education.  All  systems  of  education  are 
Philosophy.  ba.sed  on  some  philosophic  end,  and  there 
may  be  as  many  systems  as  there  are  ends  that  can  be 
made  philosophic  ultimates.  The  acceptance  of  a 
wrong  end  results  in  a  wrong  system  of  education  ;  and 
the  acceptance  of  narrow  and  partial  ends  results  in 
narrow  and  partial  systems.     Indeed,  all  partial  systems 


INTRODUCTION.  1 3 

of  education  have  their  origin  in  the  acceptance  of  a 
partial  end  as  an  ultimate.  Shallow  philosophizing  is 
the  source  of  hobbies  and  fads.  Our  earnest  contention 
is  that  philosophy  throws  no  guiding  Hght  on  the  teach- 
ing process.  What  could  be  done  in  actual  teaching 
with  the  philosophic  principle  (if  it  be  one)  that  "  the 
end  of  education  is  to  put  man  in  right  relations  to  the 
universe  "  .-*  The  results  of  the  teaching  art  are  wrought 
ill  the  pupil}  and  hence  they  are  subjective  and  immedi- 
ate—  not  objective  and  ultimate.  In  actual  teaching, 
even  the  philosopher  must  set  before  himself  and  strive 
to  attain  immediate  ends."  ""    ~ 

We  thus  reach  the  important  fact  that  ihe  guiding 
principles  of  the  teaching  art  are  derived  from  psychology, 
and  happily  from  its  facts.  It  will  be  shown  later  that 
these  principles  can  be  clearly  stated  and  intelligently 
applied. 

It  may  be  objected  that  the  necessary  psychical  facts 
for  a  science  of  teaching  are  not  yet  known  ;  that  the 
advent  of  such  a  science  must  wait  for  a  new  psychol- 
ogy. It  is  not  claimed  that  all  psychical  facts  are  now 
known  ;  that  there  is  nothing  more  to  be  learned  in  psy- 
chology. Not  only  experiment  and  observation  but  intro- 
spection may  add  new  facts  and  widen  and  otherwise 
modify  facts  now  known.  Psychology  is  a  pro-  science  of 
gressive  science ;  but  it  is  now  a  science,  and  as  Psychology, 
such  presents  a  body  of  facts  respecting  physical  activ- 
ity and  growth  of  fundamental  importance  in  education. 
To  assert  the  contrary  is  to  raise  a  strong  presumption 
that  there  will  never  be  such  a  science  as  psychology, 

1  "  Each  object  and  each  situation,  every  act  of  man  and  every  refusal  to 
act  causes  a  reaction  in  the  soul  educative  in  its  effect."  —  Dr.  W.  T. 
Harris  in  "  Psychologic  Foundations  of  Education." 


14  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

and,  as  a  consequence,  there  will  never  be  a  psychical 
basis  for  the  art  of  teaching. 

No  one  of  the  new  methods  of  psychical  research  has 
set  aside  a  psychical  fact   discovered  by  introspection 

No  New  ^iid  attested  by  experience,  and  no  objective 
Psychology,  or  physiological  discovery  has  dimmed  the 
clear  light  of  consciousness.  While  new  facts  are  discov- 
ered, the  certitude  of  the  facts  of  consciousness  remains 
unimpeached.  Modern  psychologists  who  have  given 
much  attention  to  the  so-called  physiological  psychology, 
are  now  affirming  that  the  physiological  laboratory  is 
not  discrediting  or  superseding  the  ascertained  facts  of 
consciousness ;  that  there  is  no  new  psychology  in  the 
sense  in  which  the  term  is  often  used.  The  term  new 
when  applied  to  psychology  is  inclusive  of  the  old,  not 
exclusive.  The  new  psychology  includes  the  facts  of 
consciousness  or  it  has  no  message. 

In  the  introductory  chapter  of  his  "Talks  to  Teach- 
ers on  Psychology,"  Professor  William  James,  of  Har- 
vard University,  says :  — 

"  So  I  say  at  once  that  in  my  humble  opinion  there  is  no  new 
psychology  worthy  of  the  name.  There  is  nothing  but  the  old 
psychology,  which  began  in  Locke's  time,  plus  a  little  physiology  of 
brain  and  sense  and  theory  of  evolution  and  a  few  refinements 
of  introspective  detail  for  the  most  part  without  adaptation  to  the 
teacher's  use.  It  is  only  the  fundamental  conceptions  of  psychology 
which  are  of  real  value  to  the  teacher,  and  they,  apart  from  the 
aforesaid  theory  of  evolution,  are  very  far  from  being  new." 

Professor  Royce,  of  Harvard  University,  bears  sim- 
ilar testimony.  In  an  able  paper  read  before  the 
National  Council  of  Education  in  1898  he  shows  that 
psychology  was  never  exclusively  introspective,  while 
introspection  is  a  notable  factor  in  the  psychology  of 


INTR  OD  UC  TION.  1 5 

to-day. 1     The  "psychology  of  the  armchair"  is  largely 
a  figment  of  the  imagination. 

Modern  psychology  is  an  organization  of  psychical 
facts,  whether  old  or  new,  and  howsoever  ascertained. 
Such  modern  psychologists  as  Porter,  Hoff-  Modem 
ding,  Ladd,  and  James  survey  the  entire  field  Psychology, 
of  psychical  research.  Whatever  is  known  of  the  activi- 
ties, growth,  states,  and  susceptibilities  of  the  human 
soul  is  appropriated  by  modern  psychology.  Hence  its 
value  as  a  basis  for  the  science  of  education,  and  espe- 
cially for  the  science  of  teaching.  From  the  psychical 
facts  thus  presented  it  is  not  difficult  to  derive  funda- 
mental principles  of  teaching,  principles  which  constitute 
a  science  of  teaching  and  are  guiding  and  fruitful  in 
practice.  Even  Professor  Miinsterberg,  of  Harvard, 
who  is  bearing  such  emphatic  and  repeated  testimony 
against  the  value  of  the  laboratory  study  of  physiological 
psychology  to  the  teacher  in  actual  school  work,  admits 
that  psychology  has  "  some  of  its  best  fruits  for  the 
work  of  education."  Whatever  may  be  the  practical 
value  of  laboratory  psychical  research  to  the  teacher, 
the  known  facts  of  psychology  are  undeniably  of  great 
value  in  determining  the  guiding  principles  of  the  teach- 
ing art. 

•  There  is  nothing  gained  in  pedagogy  by  attempts  to 
make  distinctions  in  the  value  of  different  kinds  of 
psychical  knowledge.  Whether  psychical 
facts  belong  to  rational  psychology  or  em-  Psychicai 
pirical  psychology  or  physiological  psychology  Knowledge. 
is  not  material,  provided  they  are  facts,  and  as  such  are 
attested  by  consciousness  and  experience. 

1  Proceedings   of  the    National   Educational  Association,  Washington, 
D.C.,  1898,  pp.  554-570- 


1 6  THE   ART   OF   TEACHIiVG. 

It  is  not  claimed  that  the  principles  of  teaching  are 
all  derived  from  psychology.  While  this  furnishes 
what  may  be  called  the  basal  principles  of  the  teaching 
art,  other  principles  of  practical  value  are  furnished  by 
other  sciences. 

The  science  of  ethics  sheds  a  clear  light  upon  the 
training  of  the  will,  including  the  use  of  motives,  the 
freedom  of  the  will,  etc.  Whatever  may  be 
true  of  the  influence  of  true  methods  of  teach- 
ing on  moral  character,  itjsjcertain  that  ethical  condi- 
tions modify  intellectual  training  and  limit  its  efficiency. 
Indeed,  the  psychology  from  which  the  art  of  teaching 
derives  its  guiding  principles  clearly  includes  the  science 
of  ethics. 

Modern  physiology  includes  facts  that  condition  and 
limit  psychical  as  well  as  physical  activity,  and  so  have 
an  important  place  in  the  science  of  teach- 
ing. Physiological  research  is  adding  to  our 
knowledge  these  and  other  facts  that  must  be  con- 
sidered in  school  training.  It  is  increasingly  seen 
that  physiology  has  a  message  of  great  value  in  peda- 
gogy. But  it  must  ever  be  remembered  that  psychi- 
cal and  physiological  facts  are  not  identical.  No 
fact  is  both  psychical  and  physiological,  though  the  one 
may  be  related  to  the  other.  The  phenomena  of  the 
human  body  may  be  susceptible  of  physical  testing  and 
measurement,  but  psychical  phenomena  have  no  mate- 
rial quality  or  equivalent.  Ideas,  feelings,  and  pur- 
poses cannot  be  measured  like  physical  substances 
and  energies.  Professor  Miinsterberg  and  other 
psychologists  have  clearly  shown  that  psychical  and 
physical  phenomena  have  no  common  quahty  or 
measure. 


INTR  OD  UC  TION.  I  / 

The  value  of  psychology  as  a  guide  in  teaching  is  at 
present  most  evident  in  primary  instruction.  The  recent 
happy  changes  in  methods  of  teaching  young  Primary 
children  have  been  effected  in  the  light  of  a  instruction. 
truer  knowledge  of  child  life,  or,  if  preferred,  a  truer 
child  psychology.  Pestalozzi,  Froebel,  and  other  re- 
formers of  elementary  education  derived  their  principles 
from  what  they  believed  to  be  known  of  the  activity  and 
development  of  the  soul  in  childhood. 

The  difference  between  primary  and  advanced  methods 
of  teaching  correspond  to  the  difference  in  what  Pro- 
fessor  James    calls    "  the    behavior    of    the 

Primary  and 

mind "  in  childhood  and  adult  life.  No  Advanced 
psychical  theory  has  been  the  source  of  more  ^^^t^ods. 
error  in  teaching  than  the  assumption  that  the  mind  of  a 
child  differs  from  the  mind  of  an  adult  in  no  respect 
except  in  strength  ;  that  children  are  little  adults.  This 
led  to  the  old  pedagogical  error  that  young  pupils 
in  the  primary  school  may  be  taught  the  same  kinds 
of  knowledge  and  in  essentially  the  same  way  as 
pupils  in  the  high  school ;  that  the  only  real  difference 
between  primary  and  advanced  methods  of  teaching  is 
the  length  of  lessons  ;  that  is,  the  amount  of  knowledge 
taught  in  a  given  exercise. 

There  is  a  surprising  revival  of  this  serious  error  in 
the  recent  tendency  to  force  down  into  lower  grades 
subjects  that  have  taxed  the  powers  of  unwise 
much  older  pupils.  What  is  needed  to  cor-  Tendency, 
rect  this  unwise  tendency  is  a  clearer  recognition  of 
the  fact  that  the  mind  of  the  child  differs  from  the 
mind  of  the  adult,  not  simply  in  strength,  but  in  the 
relative  activity  and  energy  of  the  several  mental 
powers  ;  the  percepth^^powers^or  example,  being  more 

ART  OF  TEACHING  —  2  ~  '       """  " 


1 8  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

active  in  infancy  than  the  thou^^ht  powers.^  The  mental 
condition  of  pupils  as  they  advance  from  the  kindergar- 
ten to  the  high  school  is  characterized  by  changes  in  the 
relative  activity  of  the  several  mental  powers. 

It  is  evident  that  methods  and  processes  of  teaching 
must  be  adapted  to  these  psychical  changes ;  and  here 
Adaptation  the  vital  qucstion  is  not  what  pupils  can  be 
to  Changes,  forced  or  trained  to  do  in  the  successive  grades, 
but  wJiat  they  ougJit  to  do  in  their  psychical  and  physical 
condition.  It  follows  that  true  primary  methods  of 
teaching  involve  a  knowledge  of  the  psychical  as  well 
as  the  physical  nature  of  children. 

It  is  a  question  whether  observation  or  insight  has  con- 
tributed most  to  this  knowledge.  What  is  known  as  child 
study  has  no  meaning  except  as  the  phenom- 
ena observed  are  correctly  interpreted,  and  this 
can  be  done  only  in  the  clear  light  of  consciousness ; 
and  here  insight  is  more  important  than  outsight.  The 
biographers  of  Froebel  leave  no  doubt  that  his  marvelous 
insight  into  child  nature  was  made  possible  by  the  memo- 
ries of  his  own  childhood.  It  seems  probable  that  Froe- 
bel's  memory  put  back  in  time  some  of  the  experiences 
*  of  his  early  youth,  otherwise  he  was  an  extraordinary 
child.  Few  memories  of  the  first  four  years  of  infancy 
appear  in  later  consciousness,  few  associations  being 
possible.^  Not  only  is  this  true,  but,  as  a  consequence, 
it  is  difficult  to  interpret  the  observations  on  children 
made  at  this  early  age,  and  much  more  difficult  to  make 
them  the  basis  of  a  scientific  generalization.  Moreover, 
it  is  not  possible  to  apply  what  is  shown  in  one  period 

1  "  Elements  of  Pedagogy,"  pp.  84-93. 

2  "  We  have  a  large  group  of  psychic  facts  that  vanish  long  before 
maturity  is  attained,  and  leave  no  sign."  —  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall. 


INTRODUCTION.  1 9 

of  child  life  to  another  period.  The  changes  in  child 
experiences  are  too  great.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
psychic  manifestations  of  children  before  the  age  of  five 
throw  any  clear  Hght  on  the  period  of  school  training. 

It  further  seems  evident  that  child  study  can  give 
results  of  scientific  value  only  when  carried  on  by  observ- 
ers specially  fitted  for  the  difficult  work.  No  scientific 
one  but  a  practical  psychologist  is  competent  vaiueof 
to  make  a  scientific  study  of  a  child,  and  still  '^^'''^  ^'"'^^" 
higher  ability  and  attainments  are  required  to  gener- 
alize the  results  of  such  study.  In  an  article  in  the 
Forum  (August,  1900),  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall  states  that 
child  study  is  now  represented  by  two  thousand  books 
and  articles  well  worth  reading,  "  not  comprising  the 
yet  larger  mass  of  chaff."  If  more  than  half  of  the 
titles  on  child  study  are,  in  the  judgment  of  so  eminent 
an  expert  as  Dr.  Hall,  ''chaff,'"  what  must  be  true  of  the 
still  greater  mass  of  unpublished  papers,  reports,  etc., 
which  have  had  a  hearing  in  the  past  ten  years }  Has 
any  expert  yet  appeared  who  is  competent  to  detect 
and  weed  out  the  errors  even  in  the  titles  declared  by 
Dr.  Hall  to  be  worth  reading  .-*  To  most  psychologists 
this  seems  an  impossible  task.  The  only  course  that 
promises  success  in  obtaining  reliable  data  for  scientific 
purposes  is  to  exclude  all  observations  not  made  by  com- 
petent experts.  To  the  lay  mind  there  is  so  far  small 
promise  that  child  study  will  ever  give  us  a  new  psy- 
chology, and  even  the  promised  child  psychology  is  in 
the  future,  and  seemingly  not  a  very  near  future.  But 
we  are  told  that  "this  is  an  expert  problem,  and  only 
the  opinions  of  experts  have  value." 

But  whatever  may  be  true  of  the  scientific  results  of 
child  study,  as  now  carried  on,  it  is  throwing  some  light, 


20  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

though  not  always  clear  or  certain,  on  the  training  of 
the  young.  It  is  doing  a  great  service  by  calling 
Its  Practical  needed   attention   to  the  physical  defects  of 

Value.  children,  particularly  those  of  sight  and 
hearing,  and  many  children  thus  afflicted  are  being 
relieved.  It  is  disclosing  the  physical  conditions  of 
attention,  the  signs  of  fatigue,-^  and  other  physiological 
facts  of  practical  value,  and  it  is  giving  new  emphasis 
to  the  old  truth  that  a  knowledge  of  the  individual 
pupil,  not  necessarily  scientific,  but  personal  and  sym- 
pathetic, must  guide  in  his  training.  But  the  most 
important  results  yet  attained  are  indirect  and  inci- 
dental. These  include  the  changed  attitude  and  spirit 
of  teachers,  especially  primary  teachers,  toward  their 
pupils,  and  the  increased  mutual  interest  between  the 
home  and  the  school. 

Since  it  is  conceded  by  the  best  judges  that  the  great 
mass  of  even  recorded  child  observations  are  not  trust- 
worthy, it  behooves   teachers  to  be  slow  in 

Caution.  .  ,        ,  ,  .  . 

their  attempts  to  apply  these  observations  in 
the  training  of  children.  It  would  seem  wiser  to  wait 
until  experts,  who  may  be  competent  to  separate  the 
wheat  from  the  chaff,  have  put  reliable  results  into 
usable  form.  It  will  certainly  be  wise  for  teachers  to 
pay  Httle  attention  to  generalizations  based  on  syllabi 
averages,  howsoever  attractive  they  may  appear. 

Whatever  may  be  the  sources  of  psychical  science,  its 
facts  hold  a  fundamental  relation  to  the  art  of  teaching. 

^  The  reported  results  of  experiments  to  determine  the  facts  respecting 
the  mental  fatigue  of  school  children  have  been  somewhat  discredited  by 
the  more  recent  experiments  of  Dr.  Thorndike  (^Psychological  Review, 
November,  1900).  It  is  doubtful  whether  we  are  yet  in  possession  of  any 
new  facts  of  practical  value  in  arranging  the  school  program. 


INTR  OD  UC  TION.  2 1 

Psychology  not  only  has  light  for  the  teacher,  but  its 
light  is  essential  and  guiding.  It  is  an  axiom  of  peda- 
gogy that  teaching,  both  in  subject-matter  and  method, 
musL  be  adapted  _to,jthe_jcapabilitx,._of__the  Axiom  of 
learner,  but  such  adaptation  is  not  possible  Pedagogy, 
irthe  teacher  be  ignorant  of  the  capability  of  his  pupil. 
He  must  know  not  only  the  subject-matter  to  be  taught, 
but  also  how  the  pupil  can  best  acquire  such  knowledge. 
For  these  guiding  facts  he  must  go  to  psychology. 

Every  rational  method  of  teaching  presupposes  that 
the  pupil  acquires  knowledge  in  known  ways,  and  that 
the  several  mental  powers  are  developed  in  a  known 
order.  It  is  not  claimed  that  these  ways  and  this  order 
are  perfectly  known.  Modern  psychical  research  is 
throwing  new  light  upon  these  facts,  so  fundamental 
in  teaching,  and  there  is  promise  of  clearer  and  fuller 
knowledge.     Psychology  has  not  spoken  its  last  word. 


CHAPTER    II. 
ENDS    IN    TEACHING. 

The  first  question  in  the  art  of  teaching  is  tJie  end  to 
be  attained.  This  is  not  only  the  first  but  the  essential 
question.  It  largely  determines  means  and  methods 
and  is  the  decisive  test  of  their  value.  This  will  be 
made  evident  by  a  glance  at  several  of  the  more  obvious 
relations  of  the  ends  sought  to  the  teaching  process. 

1.  The  end  to  be  attained  in  teaching  guides  the  pro- 
cess. There  can  be  no  skill  in  any  art  in  the  absence  of 
End  guides  definite  aims.  The  more  clearly  the  end  to 
the  Process,  j^g  attained  is  seen,  the  greater  the  inspiring 
interest  and  the  higher  the  skill.  This  is  true  in  the 
simplest  arts,  as  the  pitching  of  a  ball  or  a  quoit,  and 
it  is  eminently  true  in  the  art  of  teaching,  the  art  of 
arts.  All  aimless  teaching  is  poor,  whatever  may  be 
the  teacher's  zeal.  The  end  is  the  guiding  ideal  in 
teaching.  Moreover,  the  result  to  be  attained  in  a 
teaching  exercise  must  be  seen  from  the  beginning,  and 
every  step  of  the  process  be  thus  guided.  This  will  give 
unity  to  the  exercise  and  secure  concentration  of  effort, 
a  necessary  condition  of  successful  teaching.  Scattera- 
tion  is  not  teaching. 

As  already  shown  (p.  lo),  ultimate  ends  may  deter- 
mine the  comprehensive  function  of  the  school  and  its 
general  course  of  training,  but  such  ends  are  too  objec- 

22 


ENDS  IN   TEACHING.  23 

tive  and  remote  to  enter  helpfully  into   the   teaching 
process.     The  guiding  ends  in  teaching  must  be  definite, 
immediate,  and  subjective  ;  that  is,  they  must      Guiding 
be  results  wrought  in  the  pupil.     Moreover,        ^"^^■ 
they  must  be  true  ends.      A  wrong  end  is  always  sub- 
versive of  effort  whatever  may  be  its  skill. 

2.  The  end  to  be  attained  in  teaching  is  a  measure 
of  success.  A  teaching  exercise  that  attains  the  results 
sought  is  so  far  successful.  In  the  absence  Measure  of 
of  a  definite  end  there  can  be  no  sure  evidence  success. 
of  success,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  satisfaction  and 
inspiration  which  flow  from  conscious  success  are  want- 
ing. The  teacher  needs  a  sure  and  satisfying  evidence 
of  success,  and  this  not  only  for  encouragement,  but 
also  to  make  further  progress  possible. 

It  is  not  easy  to  overstate  the  importance  of  such  a 
measure  of  success  in  teaching.  At  the  close  of  every 
exercise  the  teacher  needs  to  know  whether  he  has  suc- 
ceeded or  failed,  and  the  degree  of  his  success  or  failure. 
This  is  essential  to  the  taking  of  the  next  step  wisely. 
Aimless  teaching  is  blind  and  sorry  plodding.  The 
teacher  needs  not  only  guidance,  but  also  inspiration. 
In  the  absence  of  such  inspiration  teaching  is  "  the 
sorriest  of  trades."  It  may  be  added  that,  while  even 
the  successful  attainment  of  a  wrong  end  in  teaching  is 
failure,  the  failure  is  in  the  wrong  end  sought,  and  not 
in  its  attainment. 

3.  The  end  is  tJic  sure  test  of  methods  and  devices. 
The  importance  of  such  a  test  is  obvious.     Ingenious 
and  earnest  teachers  are  devising  new  ways       Test  of 
of  teaching,  and  many  of  these  devices  are      devices, 
published  to  help  other  teachers.     Indeed,  our  present 
school  literature  is  a  swamp  of    methods  and  devices, 


24  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

some  excellent,  many  indifferent,  and  not  a  few  silly. 
What  is  to  be  done  with  them  ?  It  would  certainly  be 
unwise  for  teachers  to  ignore  what  other  teachers  are 
doing  to  improve  their  work.  Better  methods  of  teach- 
ing are  both  possible  and  desirable,  and  whatever  thought 
and  ingenuity  can  do  in  the  way  of  improved  devices 
should  certainly  be  encouraged  and  utilized.  Every  im- 
proved teaching  device  or  appliance  is  a  contribution  to 
school  progress. 

But  how  is  the  worth  of  new  methods  and  devices 

to  be  determined  .''     Certainly,  not prhnarily  by  trial.     It 

is  often  claimed  that  the  only  test  of  a  method 

Not  by  Trial.  ,        .  .  ,   .  .      .  .  , 

or  device  in  teaching  is  its  actual  use  in  the 
schoolroom.  No  test  has  been  more  misleading  than 
this.  It  is  marvelous  what  little  children  can  be  trained 
to  do  by  an  enthusiastic  and  skillful  teacher.  The 
highest  interest  and  even  enthusiasm  may  be  awakened 
by  exercises  that  violate  the  most  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  child  training.  The  sorriest  follies  that  have 
disgraced  American  teaching  have  come  into  the  schools 
through  the  door  of  trial.  Teachers  were  able  "  to  work 
them  "  as  mechanisms,  and  so  they  were  exploited  as 
devices  that  "  work  well." 

Every  true  method  of  teaching  will  work  well  in 
practice  under  right  conditions,  but  the  primary  test  of 
its  trueness  must  lie  back  of  its  trial.  The  decisive  fact 
is  not  what  children  caji  do  under  skillful  stimulation, 
but  ivJiat  they  oiigJit  to  do,  and  this  cannot  be  deter- 
mined by  experiment  measured  by  interest  or  zeal.  It 
is  feared  that  some  of  the  experimenting  on  children  in 
our  schools  is  well-nigh  criminal.  It  is  an  important 
function  of  the  science  of  pedagogy  to  protect  children 
from  the  experimenter  in  devices  and  fads. 


ENDS  IN   TEACHING,  2$ 

The  sure  test  of  methods  and  devices,  which  should 
precede   their  actual  trial,  is  t/ie  crucial  test  cmciai  Test 
of  end.     Every  new  method  or  device  asking       °*  ^"'^ 
for  trial  should  be  made  to  stand  and  answer  at  least 
three  questions,  to  wit : 

1.  What  is  its  end?  What  is  the  result  it  purposes 
to  attain  ?  If  a  method  or  device  has  no  definite  pur- 
pose, it  needs  no  trial  to  condemn  it.  If  its  end  is  obvi- 
ous, then  a  second  question  must  be  put  to  it. 

2.  Is  this  end  a  true  school  result?  It  is  clearly  not 
enough  that  a  teaching  device  has  a  known  end.  It 
must  be  a  true  end  for  the  school.  It  must  have  a 
fruitful  relation  to  what  is  to  follow  in  the  course.  A 
device  that  has  no  vital  relation  to  the  fundamental 
purpose  of  school  training  has  no  school  value.  It  may 
interest,  even  tip-toe,  children,  may  "work  well"  as  an 
exercise,  and  yet  have  no  true  place  in  school  training. 
A  third  question  remains. 

3.  Is  this  the  best  zuaj  of  reaching  the  proposed  end? 
It  is  not  enough  that  a  device  be  a  way  or  even  a  good 
way  of  reaching  a  result.  It  should  be  the  "Get  the 
best  way  known  to  the  teacher.  In  teaching,  Best." 
the  best  methods  and  devices  are  poor  enough.  Here 
the  aim  should  be  to  "get  the  best,"  and  use  the  best. 
This  aim  is  largely  personal.  The  teacher  must  seek 
and  use  the  methods  which  are  hQ.?,t  for  hint.  This  in- 
volves not  only  the  teacher's  ability,  training,  and  experi- 
ence, but  also  the  conditions  that  limit  his  work.  The 
teacher  in  the  rural  school  may  be  baffled  by  methods 
which  may  work  well  in  the  highly  organized  city  school. 
The  teacher  in  the  normal  school,  who  teaches  only  one 
subject,  may  successfully  use  devices  which  cannot  be 
used  by  teachers  who  teach  daily  several  subjects.     An 


26  THE  ART   OF   TBI  ACHING. 

elaborate  scientific  method  of  teaching  can  be  success- 
fully used  only  by  teachers  with  adequate  scientific  train- 
ing. Not  every  warrior  can  fight  in  Saul's  armor.  Some 
may  best  use  David's  sHng.  The  untrained  soldier  can 
best  use  a  simple  weapon ;  and  the  untrained  teacher 
can  best  use  simple  methods. 

It  would  not  be  difficult  to  fill  pages  with  applications 

of  this  test  of  end  to  methods  and  devices  that  have  had 

,    ..     .       their  day  or  are  now  on  trial  in  American 

Application  ■' 

to  New  schools.  Many  new  methods  now  noisily 
Devices.  exploited  would  fail  to  pass  such  a  crucial 
test,  if  intelligently  applied,  and  many  now  discarded 
"systems"  would  never  have  possessed  the  schools  if 
they  had  been  obliged  to  enter  through  such  a  door. 
The  path  of  school  progress  is  strewn  with  discarded 
hobbies  which  in  their  day  had  no  true  or  even  definite 
school  purpose,  no  merit,  indeed,  but  novelty.  Un- 
pedagogical  devices  have  appeared  in  every  branch  of 
study  and  in  every  school  art.  They  have  abounded  in 
reading  and  arithmetic.  There  will  be  opportunity  later 
to  apply  this  decisive  test  of  end  to  several  methods  and 
devices  now  or  recently  claiming  attention. 

A  Trinity  of  Ends. 

While  teaching  exerrises  have  their  special  ends,  no 
two  being  precisely  the  same,  these  apparently  numer- 
ous results  all  fall  into  three  distinct  classes, 

Three  Fun-  _  ' 

damentai  which  may  be  designated  as  kiwwledge,  power, 
^'^^^'  and  skill.  Every  true  teaching  exercise  has 
one  or  more  of  these  results  in  some  form  as  its  end  or 
purpose ;  and  hence  they  are  properly  regarded  as  tJie 
three  fundamental  ends  of  teaching.  These  three  ends 
may  be  studied  separately  with  great  practical  advantage, 


ENDS  IN   TEACHING.  2"] 

and  guiding  principles  of  teaching  may  thus  be  dis- 
covered. It  is  fortunate  that  the  fundamental  ends  of 
teaching  are  so  few  in  number,  for  in  multiplicity  of  aims 
general  principles  and  methods  are  likely  to  be  lost. 

1.  One  of  the  fundamental  ends  to  be  attained  in  teach- 
ing is  knowledge;  that  is,  to  lead  the  pupil  to  know 
something  which  the  teacher  desires  him  to 
know.  The  teaching  process  is  complete 
when  the  pupil  has  acquired  the  desired  knowledge. 
Knowledge  is  acquired  by  the  act  of  knowing,  and  hence 
to  occasion  this  knowing  activity  is  the  purpose  of  the 
teaching  process.  This  is  true  whatever  be  the  nature 
of  the  knowledge  taught,  whether  so-called  "real" 
knowledge  or  information ;  whether  original  knowledge 
or  recorded  knowledge. 

It  ought  to  go  without  saying  that  the  more  clearly 
and  definitely  the  knowledge  taught  is  known  by  the 
teacher,  the  more  skillful  and  effective  will  be  Teacher's 
the  teaching.  Knowledge  cannot  be  taught  Knowledge, 
by  one  who  does  not  himself  know  what  he  essays  to 
teach.  The  first  requisite  in  successful  teaching  is  a 
thorough  and  fresh  knowledge  of  the  subjects  taught, 
a  principle  that  must  be  assumed  in  all  consideration  of 
methods. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  enter  upon  a  discussion  of  the 
kinds  of  knowledge  that  should  be  taught  in  school. 
This  question  properly  belongs  to  the  course  vi\nA%  of 
of  study,  and  this  involves  a  consideration  of  Knowledge, 
the  more  ultimate  ends  of  school  education.  It  must 
suffice  to  say  here  that  a  true  course  of  school  instruc- 
tion includes,  (i)  knowledge  necessary  as  a  means  of 
acquiring  other  knowledge, '  that  is,  elenieiitary  knowl- 
edge;  (2)  knowledge  wii^iwX  for  guidance  in  life's  activi- 


28  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

ties  and  duties ;  and  (3)  knowledge  which  is  a  source  of 
human  happiness,  a  means  of  increasing  human  enjoy- 
ment 

Since  knowledge  has  its  successive  phases,  corre- 
sponding to  the  phases  of  knowing,  the  elementary  facts 
in  every  branch  must  be  known  before  the  higher  or 
more  advanced  knowledge  can  be  taught  or  acquired. 
The  elementary  school  is  the  place  where  the  pupils 
should  acquire  primary  ideas  and  facts,  and  on  the  clear- 
ness and  accuracy  of  this  elementary  knowledge  will 
largely  depend  their  future  progress. 

The  utility  of  knowledge  for  guidance  in  life  is  a 
much  wider  question  than  the  practical  value  of  its  facts 
Utility  of  in  the  work  of  hfe,  "  in  getting  a  living." 
Knowledge.  Thg  pupil  is  to  be  more  than  an  artisan, 
more  than  a  winner  of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  He 
is  also  to  be  the  head  and  guide  of  the  family,  a  mem- 
ber of  society,  a  citizen  of  the  state,  a  subject  of  divine 
government,  and  out  of  these  relations  flow  obligations 
and  duties  of  the  highest  importance.  The  knowledge 
taught  in  school  must  promote  not  only  physical,  but 
also  moral,  social,  and  civil  well-being,  and  it  must  guide 
and  inspire  man  in  the  discharge  of  Hfe's  higher  as  well 
as  lower  duties. ^ 

2.  Another  end  of  teaching  is  the  development  of 
power.     The  term  poivcr  may  include  physical  or  mental 

1  These  diversions  have  been  made  to  bear  testimony  against  that  nar- 
rovir  utilitarianism  which  is  clamoring  for  the  grooving  of  school  training 
to  life's  toil ;  which  would  exclude  from  the  school  all  training  that  seeks 
to  exalt  and  enrich  human  life.  The  American  school  faces  a  civilization 
which  confronts  man  with  interests  and  duties  demanding  not  only  wide 
information,  but  powers  equal  to  the  great  problems  that  press  upon  him 
for  solution,  a  civilization  in  which  intelligence  and  righteousness  are  vital, 
and  character  the  supreme  need. 


ENDS  IN   TEACHING.  29 

or  moral  or  spiritual  power,  but,  for  our  present  purpose, 
the  term  is  used  chiefly  in  the  sense  of  mental  or  intel- 
lectual power.  But  even  mental  power  is  too  Mental 
general  in  its  meaning  to  serve  as  a  guide  Power, 
in  a  teaching  process.  The  teacher  must  have  in  mind 
the  special  power  to  be  developed,  or,  what  may  be 
clearer,  the  special  direction  in  which  mental  power  is 
to  be  trained.  There  is  little  helpful  guidance  in  the 
vague  notion  that  the  purpose  of  a  teaching  exercise  is 
to  develop  mental  strength  or  bigness.  A  training 
exercise  must  be  guided  by  an  aim  more  definite  than 
this.     Indefinite  activity  does  not  give  definite  power. 

While  there  are  many  special  directions  in  which  power 
may  be  trained  in  a  teaching  exercise,  there  are  three 
directions  of  fundamental  importance.  These  Three 
are  (i)  the  acquisition  of  knowlege,  by  ob-  Directions, 
servation  and  thought ;  (2)  the  expression  of  knowledge 
by  language,  drawing,  etc.;  and  (3)  its  application  or 
use.  So  far  as  the  training  of  power  is  related  to  knowl- 
edge, it  takes  the  direction  of  acquisition  or  expression  or 
application.  A  given  teaching  exercise  may  in  its  prog- 
ress take  all  three  of  these  directions,  and  will  usually 
take  the  first  two,  but  one  should  be  the  leading  or 
central  aim. 

The  principles  that  guide  in  the  development  of  power 
in  these  three  directions  will  be  presented  in  the  next 
chapter.     It  must  suffice  here  to  say  that  the 

■^  Power  to 

power  to  acquire  knowledge  is  trained  only  acquire 
by  acqtnring  knowledge,  and  the  clearer  the  ^""^'^'^e^- 
knowledge  acquired,  the  more  fruitful  will  be  the  train- 
ing. The  power  to  know  is  not  trained  by  mental  tip- 
toeing that  reaches  nothing  or  by  repeating  words  that 
express  only  another's  knowledge.    The  power  to  acquire 


30  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

knowledge  from  books  is  trained  by  book  study  and 
mastery. 

The  special  weakness  of  the  old-time  school  was  its 

failure  to  train  its  pupils  in  the  clear  expression  of  their 

knowledere.     They  memorized  and  repeated 

Power  to  ^  •'        _  .  ^        . 

express  language,  but  had  little  training  in  telling 
Knowledge.  y^^^^X  they  kuew  in  their  own  words.  This 
weakness  still  exists  in  the  schools,  though  there  has 
been  encouraging  improvement  in  language  training  in 
recent  years.  The  examiners  of  applicants  for  admis- 
sion to  our  colleges  bear  testimony  to  the  inability  of 
many  of  these  applicants  to  tell  or  to  write  what  they 
know  in  clear,  not  to  say  accurate,  language ;  and  yet 
these  young  people,  as  a  class,  represent  our  best 
secondary  schools.  Experience  shows  that  it  is  not 
enough  that  expression  be  made  an  incidental  aim  in 
teaching  knowledge.  It  must  be  made  an  essential  end 
in  every  knowledge  exercise.  It  will  be  shown  later 
(Chap.  XVII.)  that  there  must  also  be  separate,  well- 
graded  exercises  for  the  training  of  expression,  exer- 
cises in  which  facile  expression  is  the  chief  purpose. 

The  school  affords  only  limited  opportunities  for  the 

practical  apphcation  of  knowledge,  and  yet  in  nearly 

every  branch  of  study,  if  not  in  all,  there  are 

Power  to  -^  .  -" 

apply  facts  and  principles  that  can  be  applied 
Knowledge,  ^^j^gj^  learned,  and  such  application  makes 
clearer  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  them.  This  is  specially 
true  in  the  school  arts.  Indeed,  the  knowledge  taught 
in  these  arts  is  chiefly  for  guidance  in  practice. 

3.  The  third  end  of  teaching  is  the  training  of  skill, 
the  imparting  of  readiness  and  facility  in  doing  with 
a  special  end.  This  is  the  chief  aim  in  teaching  the 
school    arts,    as    reading,    language,    number,   writing, 


ENDS  IN   TEACHING.  3 1 

drawing,  etc.  The  training  of  skill  in  these  arts  con- 
sumes more  than  half  of  the  teacher's  time  in  our  elemen- 
tary schools,  and  in  the  attainment  of  no  other  Training  of 
end  is  there  such  a  sad  waste  of  teaching  ^kiii. 
effort.  This  is  sometimes  explained  by  the  assumption 
that  children  have  little  interest  in  exercises  that  are 
designed  to  impart  skill  in  doing  ;  that  knowledge  is 
the  basis  of  the  child's  interest.  On  the  contrary,  the 
desire  for  efficiency  in  action  is  one  of  the  Desire  for 
strongest  impulses  of  childhood.  All  the  ^kiii. 
child's  powers,  physical  and  psychical,  are  developed 
by  activity,  and  the  impulse  to  action  is  nature's  means 
to  secure  needed  growth.  Indeed,  every  desire  of  the 
soul  has  as  its  correlate  the  meeting  of  some  human 
want  or  need.  The  correlate  of  activity  is  efficiency  or 
skill,  and  hence  as  a  means  to  skill  activity  is  made 
a  pleasure  and  a  delight.  No  activity  affords  a  child 
keener  interest  or  higher  satisfaction  than  that  which 
gives  him  conscious  skill.  In  all  art  exercises  skill  should 
be  the  central,  inspiring  purpose. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  skill,  as  herein  used,  is  some- 
thing more  than  mere  facility  in  action.  It  is  facility 
in  realizing  special  ends  or  ideals.  It  is  true  skiiiasan 
that  skill  is  a  form  of  power,  but  it  is  power  ^"'*- 
made  ready  and  facile  in  action.  Skill  is,  in  a  strict 
sense,  a  quality  of  the  action  and  not  of  the  power  that 
acts.  There  are  special  advantages  in  treating  skill  as 
a  distinct  end  of  teaching. 


CHAPTER   III. 

A  TRliNITY  OF  PRINCIPLES. 

It  is  herein  assumed  that  teaching  is  an  art,  and  as 
such  has  its  fundamental  principles  which  determine  its 
methods.  It  is  also  assumed  that  a  knowledge  of  these 
principles  is  essential  to  the  highest  success  in  teaching. 

It  is  a  happy  fact  that  the  guiding  principles  of  the 

art   of   teaching   are   few  in  number.     There  are   few 

Guiding       teachers  who   can   intelligently  apply  many 

^IwT^Td      principles  in   teaching,  but   there  are  many 

Simple.  teachers  who  can  successfully  apply  a  few 
principles  which  they  clearly  understand.  It  is  also 
fortunate  that  the  guiding  principles  in  teaching  are 
simple,  and  can  be  clearly  stated. 

It  has  been  shown  in  the  previous  chapter  that  there 
are  three  comprehensive  ends  to  be  attained  in  the 
teaching  process,  to  wit :  knoivlcdge,  power,  and  skill. 
How  can  these  ends  be  attained .-'  How  can  knowledge 
be  taught .''  How  can  power  be  developed  .''  How  can 
skill  be  trained  or  acquired  .-'  The  answers  to  these 
three  questions  give  us  the  three  guiding  principles  of 
the  teaching  art. 

I.    Knowledge. 

Since  no  primary  idea  can  be  defined,  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  define  the  act  called  knowing.     Suffice  it  to  say 

32 


A    TRINITY   OF  PRINCIPLES.  33 

that  to  know  an  object  is  to  be  cej^tain  that  it  is.  Certi- 
tude characterizes  all  acts  of  knowing,  but  not  equally. 
There  are  different  degrees  of  certainty  in  knowing. 
A  high  degree  of  certainty  gives  what  has  Degrees  of 
been  called  real  kuoivledge.  The  degree  of  certitude, 
certainty  that  depends  on  the  testimony  or  authority 
of  other  minds  gives  us  information.  Between  so-called 
real  knowledge  and  information  are  varying  degrees  of 
certitude.  But  for  our  present  purpose  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  make  a  distinction  between  knowledge  and  in- 
formation. The  guiding  principles  in  teaching  apply 
equally  to  both,  though  they  may  be  taught  by  different 
methods. 

Knowledge  is  the  result  of  the  act  of  knowing.  The 
mind  puts  forth  the  act  of  knowing,  and  knowledge 
is  the  result  or  product.  Hence  the  mind  Result  of 
acquires  knowledge  by  its  own  activity,  not  Knowing, 
by  the  activity  of  another  mind.  Knowledge  is  pos- 
sessed by  no  mind  that  does  not  put  forth  the  act  of 
knowing.  In  the  absence  of  this  knowing  activity,  the 
mind  cannot  acquire  knowledge. 

It  follows  from  these  facts  that  knowledge  cannot  be 
transferred  from  one  mind  to  another.     Water  can  be 
poured    from    one    vessel    into    another,  but    Knowledge 
there  is  no  "  pouring-in  "  process  in  teaching      ^  "°* 
knowledge.       Knowledge    can    no    more   be        able, 
transferred    than    feelings    or    purposes.      All    that   is 
possible  in  teaching  knowledge  is  to  occasion  the  proper 
act   of    knowing.     Even   information   cannot  be  trans- 
ferred, and  its  so-called  communication  by  language  is 
possible  only  when  the  words  used  occasion  the  right 
mental  activity.     No  error  in  teaching  has  occasioned 
more   bad    work  than  the  assumption  that   knowledge 

ART   OF   TEACHING  —  3 


34  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

can  be  transferred  from  one  mind  to  another,  that  mere 
telling  is  teaching.  This  has  been  the  source  of  word 
cramming. 

The  psychical  fact   that  underlies    the   teaching    of 

knowledge  is  that  the   mind   knows  only   by   its  own 

.    .       activity,  and    from    this  fact  it   follows  that 

Occasioning  -'  ' 

Knowing  knowledge  can  be  taught  only  by  occasioning 
ctivity.  tJie  proper  knowing  activity.  There  are  two 
factors  in  teaching,  the  teacher  and  the  pupil,  and  the 
essential  factor  is  the  pupil.  It  is  what  the  pupil  does, 
not  what  the  teacher  says,  that  determines  the  success 
of  the  teaching  process.  This  explains  the  contrast 
often  presented  by  teachers.  One  teacher  presents 
lessons  well  so  far  as  mere  method  goes,  and  yet  fails 
as  an  instructor.  Another  teacher,  who  presents  her 
lessons  mechanically  no  better,  succeeds  admirably. 
The  contrast  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  first 
teacher  has  a  dormant  class.  She  does  her  work,  but 
the  pupils  do  not  do  theirs,  and  hence  her  failure.  The 
second  teacher  has  the  gift  of  awakening  the  interest  of 
her  pupils,  of  putting  them  mentally  on  tiptoe  for  the 
lesson,  an  art  that  has  no  recipe.  All  that  she  says 
or  does  occasions  responsive  activity  in  her  pupils,  and 
so  she  succeeds.  These  illustrations  show  why  interest 
and  resulting  attention  are  essential  conditions  of  all 
successful  teaching,  but  they  are  only  conditions.  They 
cannot  be  made  ends  or  exploited  as  principles  of 
teaching. 

The   foregoing  facts  give  us  the   first   fundamental 
principle  or  law  of  teaching,  to  wit : 

Principle    One.     Knowledge    can   be   taught   only   by 
occasioning  the  proper  activities  of  the  learner's  mind. 


A    TRINITY   OF  PRINCIPLES.  35 

This  is  the  one  guiding  principle  in  teaching  knowl- 
edge, a  principle  as  certain  in  pedagogy  as  the  law  of 
gravity  is  in  nature. 

It  follows  from  this  principle  that  the  method  of 
teaching  knowledge  is  determined  primarily  by  the 
nature  of  the  knowledge  taught.  The  way  ^gti^^j^g^f 
in  which  the  mind  acquires  knowledge  must  teaching 
be  observed  in  teaching  it.  Hence  there  can  K"°w'«='^e^- 
be  no  universal  or  even  general  method  of  teaching. 
There  must  be  as  many  different  methods  as  there  are 
different  kinds  of  knowledge  to  be  taught.  Perceptive 
knowledge  can  be  taught  only  by  observation ;  induc- 
tive knowledge  by  induction,  etc. 

It  is  specially  to  be  noted  that  no  primary  idea  can 
be  taught  by  means  of  a  word.  A  word  may  occasion 
the   recall  or   reproduction   of   an   idea  that 

^  Primary 

has  been  associated  with  it,  but  it  cannot  ideas  taught 
occasion  the  activity  that  results  in  a  neiv  °''i^'=*'v^'y- 
idea,  except  it  may  be  an  idea  of  the  word  as  such. 
A  primary  idea  can  be  taught  only  by  presenting  to 
the  mind  an  object  that  will  occasion  the  appropriate 
activity.  It  follows  that  all  primary  ideas  in  every 
brancJi  of  knowledge  viust  be  tangJit  objectively,  that  is, 
by  presenting  the  appropriate  objects  to  the  learner's 
mind.  The  futile  attempts  to  teach  primary  knowledge 
through  words  have  been  responsible  for  much  failure 
in  elementary  instruction.  It  was  once  widely  assumed 
that  knowledge,  even  scientific  knowledge,  can  be  put 
in  the  minds  of  young  children  by  means  of  words, 
and  it  is  too  evident  that  this  old-time  error  still  sur- 
vives. Much  of  the  so-called  scientific  instruction  in 
physiology,  and  we  may  add  geography,  now  forced  upon 
young  children,  involves  this  radical  error.     Teachers 


36  THE  ART  OF   TEACHING. 

are  slow  in  learning  that  knowledge  can  be  taught 
by  language  only  when  the  words  represent  known 
ideas. 1 

It  is  to  be  specially  noted  in  this  connection  that  the 
manner  or  method  of  teaching  knowledge  is  determined, 
Axiom  of  not  only  by  the  nature  of  the  knowledge 
Teaching,  taught,  but  also  by  the  psychical  condition 
of  the  pupil.  It  is  an  axiom  of  teaching  that  instruction 
both  in  matter  and  method  must  be  adapted  to  the  capa- 
bility of  the  learner.  The  adaptation  of  instruction  to 
capability  is  an  essential  principle  in  all  successful  in- 
struction. Not  only  does  the  mental  power  of  pupils  of 
the  same  age  differ,  but  the  capabiHty  of  the  same  pupil 
varies  from  year  to  year.  Nor  is  this  variation,  as  pre- 
viously shown  (p.  17),  due  simply  to  changes  in  the 
energy  and  activity  of  the  mind  as  a  whole.  There  is 
a  marked  change  in  the  relative  energy  and  activity  of 
the  several  mental  powers  at  different  ages  —  if  pre- 
ferred, a  rnarked  change  in  the  mind's  power  to  put 
forth  its  several  activities  at  different  ages.^  As  pupils 
advance  in  the  course  of  study  they  pass  through  suc- 
cessive phases  of  mental  development  and  activity,  and, 
as  a  consequence,  both  the  matter  and  method  of  in- 
struction must    correspondingly  change    from    year   to 

1  In  a  letter  to  Governor  Marcy  of  New  York,  dated  December  13,  1833, 
Hon.  James  Wadsworth  says  : 

"  If  I  am  correct  in  my  views,  it  is  quite  practicable  to  pass  into  the 
minds  of  our  youth  scientific  knowledge,  scientific  facts,  and  scientific 
reasons  for  thousands  of  physical  phenomena  of  constant  occurrence 
through  life.  ...  I  respectfully  retjuest  you  to  call  the  attention  of  the 
legislature  to  the  improvement  of  our  common  schools,  and  to  a  distinct 
expression  of  your  opinion  that  scientific  instruction  may  be  introduced  in 
our  common  schools  by  means  of  lectures  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  chil- 
dren —  the  lectures  to  be  read  by  the  schoolmaster."     [Italics  ours.] 

2  White's  "  Elements  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  91. 


A    TRINITY   OF  PRINCIPLES.  ^y 

year.  Pupils  in  the  higher  grades  can  easily  master 
subjects  that  cannot  be  successfully  taught  to  primary 
pupils. 

There  are  phases  of  knowledge  in  every  branch  that 
correspond  to  the  phases  of  knowing.  In  its  perceptive 
phase  of  activity  the  mind  readily  acquires  Natural 
perceptive  knowledge,  in  its  representative  order, 
phase,  representative  knowledge,  and  in  its  scientific 
phase,  scientific  knowledge.  Hence,  t/ier^  is  a  natural 
order  in  whicJi  the  pozvers  of  the  mind  sJiould  be  exer- 
cised and  the  correspojiding  kinds  of  knozvlcdge  taught} 
The  natural  movement  of  the  mind  in  the  earlier  pro- 
cesses of  knowing  is  from  sense  perception  through 
representative  activity  to  reason,  that  is,  from  sense 
activity  to  reason  through  the  activity  of  the  intermediate 
powers. 

A  true  course  of  instruction  for  elementary  schools 
cuts  off  a  section  of  presentive,  representative,  and 
thought  knowledge  each  year,  but  these  sue-  „ 

o  o  y  '  True    Course 

cessive  annual  sections  do  not  contain  the  of  instruc- 
same  kinds  of  higher  or  thought  knowledge. 
There  is  a  natural  development  of  thought  power  and  a 
corresponding  order  in  thought  knowledge.  Scientific 
knowledge  cannot  be  taught  to  infants,  but  it  must  wait 
until  the  pupil  reaches  the  scientific  phase  of  develop- 
ment. Nearly  every  branch  of  study  has  its  phases  of 
knowledge  which  correspond  to  the  successive  phases 
in  the  pupil's  psychical  growth.  Geography,  for  exam- 
ple, has  a  primary-school  phase  (its  primary  ideas  and 
facts),  a  grammar-school  phase,  a  high-school  phase, 
and  even  a  university  phase.  It  is  idle  to  attempt  to 
teach    the  astronomical  explanation   of   the  change  of 

1  White's  "  Elements  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  104. 


38  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

seasons  to  fourth  year  pupils.  The  subject  belongs 
much  higher  in  the  course.  Only  the  simple  facts 
learned  from  observation  and  experience  can  be  taught 
in  primary  grades.  The  young  child  is  not  a  scientist 
or  a  philosopher,  nor  can  he  early  master  the  causal 
reasons  of  physical  phenomena. 

A  true  course  of  study  has  been  compared  to  a  spiral 
surrounding  the  several  columns  of  human  knowledge, 

Spiral  and  cutting  off  a  section  of  each  at  every 
Theory.  round  of  its  asccut.  This  assumes  that  the 
several  branches  of  knowledge  rise  from  their  simple 
elements  by  a  natural  sequence  of  subjects  to  their 
higher  truths  and  applications,  and  that  this  sequence 
agrees  with  the  expanding  powers  of  the  mind.  It  fol- 
lows that  in  teaching  any  branch  of  knowledge  the  sev- 
eral subjects  or  topics  should  be  successively  reached 
in  their  true  psychical  order,  that  is,  as  the  pupils 
gain  the  mental  power  to  master  them. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  true  spiral  theory  of  instruc- 
tion is  psychical,  not  mechanical.  It  does  not  bring  all 
subjects  down  to  the  lowest,  and  then  keep 

Abuse  of  J  ' 

Spiral        pupils  nibbling  at  them  from  year  to  year. 

nncip  e.  -pj^jg  jg  ^  misconccption  and  abuse  of  the 
spiral  principle.  There  are,  for  example,  subjects  in 
arithmetic  that  should  not  be  taught  below  the  gram- 
mar grades.  The  several  subjects  included  in  algebra 
have  likewise  a  proper  sequence  that  should  be  observ^ed 
in  teaching  the  science.  It  is  not  meant  that  the  higher 
subjects  in  a  branch  may  not  contain  elements  that  can 
be  taught  earlier  than  the  complete  subjects.  Nothing, 
however,  is  gained  by  the  attempt  to  teach  knowledge 
that  is  above  the  capability  or  needs  of  the  learner.  A 
merry-go-round  is  not  a  spiral. 


A    TRINITY   OF  PRINCIPLES.  39 

2.    Mental  Power. 

Every  normal  act  of  the  mind  leaves  as  an  enduring 
result  an  increased  power  to  act  and  a  tendency  to  act 
again  in  like  manner.  Power  and  tendency  are  the  re- 
sultants of  all  mental  action.  The  power  and  tendency 
of  the  mind  to  observe  are  increased  by  observing ;  to 
imagine  by  imagining;  to  judge  by  judging;  to  reason 
by  reasoning,  etc.^ 

It  follows  from  these  facts  that  the  power  of  the  mind 
to  put  forth  any  kind  of  activity  is  developed  by  occa- 
sioning such  activity.  Perceptive  power  is  power 
developed  by  occasioning  perceptive  activity  ;  developed  by 
thought  power  by  occasioning  thought  activ-  <=tivity. 
ity ;  analytic  power  by  analysis ;  synthetic  power  by 
synthesis,  etc.  Not  only  is  it  true  that  each  of  the 
mental  powers  is  developed  by  occasioning  its  appro- 
priate activity,  but  it  can  be  developed  in  no  other 
way.  Activity  is  the  only  means  of  developing  mental 
power. 

From  the  foregoing  psychical  facts  is  derived  the 
second  fundamental  principle  of  teaching,  to  wit : 

Principle  Two.  The  several  mental  powers  can  be 
developed  only  by  occasioning  their  appropriate  activity. 

Here  again  it  is  seen  that  the  teacher  is  but  the  occa- 
sioner  of  right  activity  in  the  learner.      The    essential 
factor  in  training  mental  power  is  the  pupil's       p^  .j.^ 
activity.     The  teacher  can  only  occasion  and      Activity 
direct  such  activity.     The  human  soul  is  not 
a  machine  that  can  be  put  in  motion  by  turning  a  crank. 
Its  activity  is  the  result  of  a  self-exerted  energy.     The 

1  White's  "Elements  of  Pedagogy,"  0.  ng. 


40  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

function  of  teaching  is  to  stimulate  this  energy.  The 
school  joins  teaching  and  learning  as  correlates,  the  one 
the  occasioner,  and  the  other  the  efficient  cause  of  knowl- 
edge and  power. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  training  stated  above 
applies  to  the  development  of  all  psychical  power.  The 
Principle  powcr  of  the  soul  in  feeling,  in  willing,  in  all 
Universal,  nioral  and  spiritual  activity,  is  developed  only 
by  activity  in  these  directions.  Right  feelings  are  culti- 
vated, the  conscience  quickened,  and  the  moral  judg- 
ment trained  each  by  right  activity.^  This  principle  is 
the  fundamental  law  of  training  the  powers  of  the  soul 
in  all  directions  and  under  all  normal  conditions.  It  is 
a  principle  of  universal  application  in  teaching. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  limit  the  application  of 
this  principle.  It  is  claimed  that  the  power  of  the  mind 
Attempts  to  dcvclopcd  by  a  given  activity  is  not  avail- 
Limit.  ^|-,ig  jj^  other  activities ;  that  there  are  as 
many  kinds  of  mental  discipline  as  there  are  different 
"  spheres  "  of  mental  action,  and  that  the  mental  power 
developed  in  a  given  sphere  is  available  only  in  that 
sphere.  This  claim  is  set  up  in  opposition  to  the  so- 
called  "dogma  of  formal  discipline,"  a  dogma  which, 
in  the  extreme  form  in  which  it  is  often  stated,  is  largely 
a  product  of  the  imagination.  It  certainly  has  a  small 
acceptance  as  a  theory  of  mental  discipline. 

Moreover,  the  question    thus  raised  belongs  to  the 

course  of  study  rather  than  to  the  art  of  teaching.     So 

jrmh        it  must  suffice  here  to  say  that  the  truth  does 

stated.       not  lie  in  either  of  these  extreme  views.     On 

the  contrary,  all  experience  shows  that  while  mental  power 

developed  by  a  special  activity  may  not  be  available  in 

1  White's  "  School  Management,"  p.  224. 


A    TRINITY   OF  PRINCIPLES.  4 1 

a  totally  different  activity,  it  is  available,  though  not,  it 
may  be,  in  equal-  degree,  in  all  related  activities,  that 
is,  in  all  spheres  of  activity  that  involve,  though  not 
exclusively,  the  action  of  the  same  mental  powers.  The 
analytic  power  developed  by  the  solution  of  arithmeti- 
cal problems  is  helpful  in  the  analysis  of  sentences  in 
grammar ;  the  study  of  Latin  shows  itself  in  the  easier 
mastery  of  natural  science ;  the  observation  of  plant  life 
helps  in  the  observation  of  animal  life,  etc. 

It  is  not  claimed,  let  it  be  noted,  that  mental  power 
gained  in  one  sphere  of  activity  is  equally  available  in 
all  related  activities.  The  power  of  observa-  Mental 
tion  acquired  in  the  study  of  plants  is  not  Habits, 
equally  available  in  the  observation  of  animal  Hfe,  much 
less  of  chemical  phenomena.  The  powers  of  the  mind 
are  most  facile  in  the  directions  in  which  they  have 
been  exercised,  especially  in  which  habits  of  action  have 
been  formed.  Indeed,  long  and  absorbing  observation 
of  one  kind  of  phenomena  may  result  in  a  mental  habit 
which  may  be  a  hindrance  in  the  observation  of  other 
phenomena.  But  these  facts  do  not  show  that  the 
mental  power  developed  by  a  given  activity  is  limited 
to  that  special  activity  and  is  not  available  in  other 
activities.  Nor  do  they  show  that  power  developed  by 
a  given  activity  may  not  energize  the  mind  as  a  whole, 
or,  if  preferred,  may  not  energize  the  whole  mental  life. 

The  dogma  of  formal  discipline  is  one  extreme,  and 
the  doctrine  that  mental  power  is  available  only  in  the 
special  activity  that  has  developed  it  is  another  . 

extreme.     The  truth  lies  in  neither  of  these       neither 
extremes.     All  experience  shows  that  mental      Extreme, 
power  developed  in  any  sphere  of  activity  is  available, 
in  greater  or  less  degree,  in  all  related  activities. 


42  THE  ART  OF   TEACHING. 

There  is,  however,  nothing  in  this  principle  that  justi- 
fies the  claim  that,  so  far  as  mental  training  is  con- 
comparative    ccmed,  it  makcs  no  difference  what  subjects 

sclTo^or  ^^^  taught  in  school,  provided  they  are  well 
studies.  taught  —  a  proviso  which  ignores  the  fact 
that  some  subjects  cannot  be  well  taught  if  certain  other 
subjects  have  not  been  taught;  that  every  course  of 
instruction  contains  certain  fundamental  studies  that 
must  be  mastered  as  a  means  of  pursuing  other  studies. 
But  the  claim  itself  is  based  on  an  error.  The  several 
studies  in  a  school  course  do  not  afford  an  equally  valua- 
ble mental  training,  though  all  may  afford  training,  and 
a  helpful  training.  The  elementary  studies,  for  example, 
do  not  equally  train  the  power  of  observation,  even  when 
taught  by  an  "observational  method,"  nor  is  an  observa- 
tional method  equally  applicable  to  all  elementary  stud- 
ies. No  one  study  affords  equally  effective  training  in  all 
directions,  and  certainly  all  studies  do  not  give  equally 
valuable  training  in  any  one  direction.  There  is  no 
ground  for  the  claim  that  all  studies  have  equal  edu- 
cational value,  either  as  discipline  or  as  knowledge. 
A  course  of  school  training  should  clearly  include  at 
least  the  elements  of  knowledge  in  all  the  fundamental 
branches.  This  is  necessary  for  the  acquisition  of  higher 
knowledge,  as  well  as  for  the  harmonious  development 
of  the  mental  powers.  All  children  who  are  not  men- 
tally defective  are  capable  of  receiving  this  necessary 
training. 

But  let  us  come  back  from  our  long  digression  to 
the  guiding  principles  of  teaching  under  consideration. 
The  question  may  be  raised  whether  knowledge  or  the 
power  to  know  should  be  made  the  leading  aim  in  teach- 
ing knowledge.     It  is  not  easy  to  see  hov/  these  two 


A    TRINITY   OF  PRINCIPLES.  43 

results  can  be  put  in  sharp  contrast,  since  the  power 
to  know  can  be  trained  only  by  actual  knowing,  with 
both  knowledge  and  increased  power  to  know  Knowledge 
as  results.     There  can  be  no  effective  train-     o^  Power 

Leading 

ing  of  the  power  to  know  that  does  not  give  Aim. 
clear  and  definite  knowledge.  Teachers  whose  pupils 
have  vague  and  indefinite  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
jects taught  have  poor  reason  for  pride  in  the  training 
quality  of  their  teaching.  Such  teachers  are  not  suc- 
cessfully training  their  pupils'  power  to  acquire  knowl- 
edge, whatever  may  be  true  of  their  merits  in  other 
directions. 

But  this  question  has  great  practical  significance  when 
it  relates  to  methods  of  teaching  knowledge.  Knowledge 
may  be  so  taught  and  so  acquired  as  to  afford  very  little 
training  of  the  power  to  know.  This  is  specially  true 
when  information  is  taught  by  memoriter  methods.  It 
is  possible  for  a  pupil  to  know  a  statement  and  not  know 
the  fact  stated.  Not  only  is  this  possible,  but  is  not  an 
uncommon  result  when  the  attempt  is  made  to  teach 
knowledge  to  young  pupils  by  words. 

Moreover,  there  are  still  more  practical  reasons  for 
the  making  of  the  training  of  power  the  leading  aim  in 
teaching   knowledge.     Mental   power  is   not      ^   .  . 

,  Training 

only  more  abiding  than  knowledge,  but  is  of  Power  Lead- 
greater  practical  utility.  While  knowledge  is  '"^  ""' 
a  necessary  guide  in  human  effort,  mental  power  gives 
acumen,  grasp,  strength,  inspiration,  and  these  are  the 
winners  of  success  in  all  the  activities  and  conflicts  of 
life.  Even  so-called  practical  knowledge,  to  be  of  real 
utility  for  guidance,  must  be  thought  out  and  applied  by 
an  intelligent  mind.  The  superficial  empiricist  is  liable 
to  blunder  in  every  new  application  of  his  knowledge. 


44  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

I  have  elsewhere  stated  ^  that  if  my  mind  were  a  tablet 
and  with  a  sponge  I  should  erase  every  fact  learned  in 
Personal  school  and  collcge,  and  not  applied  at  the 
Experience.  Wxr^Q.  \\\  some  art,  I  should  not  be  intellectu- 
ally very  poor,  but  were  I  to  lose  the  mental  power 
gained  in  the  mastery  of  these  facts,  so  many  of  which 
were  long  since  happily  forgotten,  I  should  be  poor 
indeed.  The  abiding  practical  result  of  my  school  and 
college  training,  such  as  it  was,  is  soul  poiver.  This  is 
believed  to  be  the  experience  of  all  who  have  lived  long 
enough  to  test  fully  the  practical  value  of  their  school 
training. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  in  education  the  act  of  accjuir- 

ing  knowledge  is  more  important  than  the  knowledge 

acquired.      This   vital   truth  is   embodied  in 

Maxim   of  ' 

Elementary    the  followiug  maxiiii   of  elementary   instruc- 

Intuition.         ,• 

tion  : 

Whatever  knowledge  is  taught  a  child  should  be  so 
taught  that  the  act  of  acquiring  it  shall  be  of  greater 
zvorth  than  the  knozvledge  acquired. 

In  the  face  of  the  wide  experience  that  attests  this 
principle,  there  are  those  who  ask  of  every  school  study, 
Narrow  utii-  "  Of  what  practical  use  will  its  facts  be  in  the 
itarianism.  shop  or  in  the  store,  on  the  farm  or  in  the 
factory,  in  managing  a  railway  or  a  bank } "  They 
assert  that  the  supreme  and  only  test  of  the  value  of  a 
school  study  is  the  practical  utility  of  its  facts  for  the 
purposes  of  guidance  in  life's  business.  If  a  fact 
cannot  be  used  in  the  work  of  life,  it  is  declared  to 
be  "  a  useless  fact  and  its  acquisition  a  positive  waste 
of  time  and  effort."  This  narrow  utilitarianism  is 
crowding  our  courses  of  study  with  facts,  and  is  mak- 
1  White's  "  Elements  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  123. 


A    TRINITY  OF  PRINCIPLES.  45 

ing  school  instruction  too  largely  a  gradgrind  process  of 
cramming. 

No  intelligent  person  questions  the  value  of  practical 
knowledge  or  the  importance  of  properly  including  such 
knowledge  in  school  courses  (p.  28  ),  and  cer- 
tainly  few  modern  educators  hold  that  the  vaiue  of 
practical  worth  of  knowledge  in  life  lessens  ^""'^'^'^e^- 
its  value  as  a  means  of  mental  discipline.  The  one 
result  to  be  secured  in  teaching  knowledge,  whatever 
may  be  its  nature,  is  the  effective  training  of  the  power 
to  acquire  and  express  it.  To  this  end  it  must  be  taught 
and  acquired  by  methods  that  put  the  developing  of 
power  before  knov\ae8ge. 

3.    Skill, 

As  before  seen,  every  act  of  the  mind  leaves  as  abid- 
ing results  an  increased  power  to  act  and  a  tendency  to 
act  again  in  like  manner.  This  resulting  Psychical 
power  and  tendency  are  increased  by  each  Facts, 
repetition  of  an  act.  "  All  function,"  says  Hoffding, 
"is  made  easier  by  repetition  and  practice."  Where 
the  tendency  to  repeat  an  act  becomes  so  strong  that 
the  act  "  repeats  itself  "  habit  is  formed,  and  action  is 
involuntary  or  automatic.  The  increase  of  power  and 
tendency  by  repetition  is  not  necessarily  equal,  and  it 
usually  grows  less  and  less  as  the  limit  of  automatic 
action  is  approached.  It  is  unnecessary  to  attempt  here 
an  explanation  of  these  psychical  facts.  It  is  sufficient 
for  our  present  purpose  to  know  that  both  power  and 
tendency  in  action  are  increased  by  repetition  and 
practice. 

This  principle  of  repetition  applies  to  a  series  of  acts 
as  well  as  to  a  single  act.     At  first  each  act  in  a  series 


46  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

requires  attention,  but  at  last  the  successive  acts  seem 

to  flow  automatically  from  the  idea  of  the  end.    Thus  a 

Series  of      person  may  engage  in  conversation  when  sew- 

Acts.  ing  or  even  when  playing  a  familiar  piece  of 
music.  When  we  do  anything  from  habit,  the  succes- 
sive acts  receive  little  attention,  and  most  of  these  acts 
may  be  wholly  automatic. 

But  automatic  action  is  not  skill  in  the  sense  in  which 

the  word  is  herein  used.     Skill  is  readiness  and  facility 

Automatic     '^^    attaining   special    ends.     Aimless    action. 

Action.  howsoever  facile,  is  not  skillful.  Skill  in 
doing  is  a  higher  phase  of  activity  than  mere  motor 
action. 

The  first  phase  in  the  gaining  of  power  and  facility 

in  action  is  the  imitation  of  the  action  of  another.     At 

first  this  imitative  movement  is  instinctive,  as 

Imitation.  ,  ,      i  .■  •  i  -i 

when  a  baby  smiles  m  response  to  the  smile 
of  its  mother,  a  sort  of  responsive  coaction.  The 
action  of  another,  seen  or  heard,  is  a  stimulus  to  motor 
impulse,  and,  by  means  of  the  activity  thus  occasioned, 
the  child  comes  into  the  use  of  its  active  organs. 

But  instinctive  and  involuntary  imitation  soon  passes 
into  the  voluntary  reproduction  of  the  action  of  another. 
Voluntary  The  child  tfies  to  repeat  what  it  sees  and 
Imitation,  hcars,  the  effort  becoming  increasingly  con- 
scious and  pleasurable.  By  means  of  this  conscious 
effort  to  imitate  others,  the  child's  activities  are  multi- 
plied and  varied,  and  its  motor  power  and  facility 
increased. 

From  the  imitation  of  what  is  seen  or  heard  acting  im- 

Memory      mediately  as  a  motor  stimulus,  the  child  passes 

Imitation.     ^^  ^|^g  couscious  reproduction  of  past  actions, 

the  memory  of  such  actions  serving  as  a  motor  idea  and 


A    TRINITY   OF  PRINCIPLES.  47 

occasioning  a  motor  impulse.  The  tendency  to  respond 
to  such  a  stimulus  is  increased  by  repetition,  and  thus 
a  past  action  may  be  repeated  at  the  slightest  motor 
impulse ;  and  at  last  such  repetition  may  become 
automatic. 

The  step  is  easy  from  the  reproduction  of  past  actions 
to  the  imitation  or  realization  of  those  which  are  imag- 
ined, as  in  play.  Play  affords  the  child  in-  imagination 
creasing  pleasure  in  action,  since  he  is  becom-  '"  Action, 
ing  conscious  of  the  power  to  originate  as  well  as  to 
imitate  ;  that  is,  he  is  coming  into  conscious  self -activity. 
This  seems  to  be  the  real  significance  of  play. 

These  several  phases  of  imitation  characterize  the 
nursery  and  the  kindergarten.  The  infant  learns  to 
walk,  to  talk,  to  sing,  to  play,  to  repeat  nurs-  imitation  in 
ery  rhymes,  etc.,  by  imitative  action ;  and  infancy. 
all  this  activity  plays  an  important  part  in  the  child's 
training  and  growth.  "Man,"  said  Aristotle,  "is  the 
most  imitative  of  animals,  and  makes  his  first  steps  in 
learning  by  the  aid  of  imitation." 

The  child  at  last  rises  from  these  lower  phases  of 
imitative  action  —  the  mechanical  imitation  of  action 
seen  or  imagined  —  to  the  effort  to  realize  in  Realization 
action  a  definite  end,  an  idea  of  such  end  being  °f  ideais. 
the  ideal  that  inspires  and  guides  action.  Thus,  in  sing- 
ing the  pupil  tries  to  produce  tones  which  his  mind 
hears  (tones  in  the  mind),  and  in  drawing  he  tries  to 
make  ideal  forms  or  forms  in  the  mind.  This  idea  of 
the  end,  the  ideal,  puts  the  mind  and  the  will  into  the 
voice  and  the  fingers,  and  skill  is  the  result.  This  is  the 
art  phase  of  imitation,  tJie  skillful  realizing  of  ideals. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  in  learning  any  art,  clear  and 
inspiring  ideals  must  guide  practice ;    the  clearer  and 


48  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

more    inspiring   the    ideals,    the    greater    the    resulting 

skill.     This  is  true  not  only  in  such  manual  arts  as  the 

pitching  of  a  quoit,  the  shooting  of  an  arrow, 

Ideals  in         ^  "  ^  '=' 

learning  the  the  drawing  of  a  figure,  etc.,  but  also  in  the 
^'^^^'  arts  of  reading,  music,  painting,  sculpture, 
etc.  In  all  art  learning,  ideals  inspire  effort  and  guide 
in  movement  and  process ;  and,  since  the  imagination 
is  dependent  upon  observation  and  experience  for  the 
materials  with  which  it  forms  its  ideals,  the  wider  the 
learner's  observation  of  the  work  of  skillful  artists,  and 
the  greater  his  own  experience  and  skill,  the  better  will 
be  his  guiding  ideals,  and  the  more  fruitful  his  practice. 
We  thus  reach  the  third  fundamental  principle  of 
teaching,  to  wit : 

Principle  Three.    Skill  in  any  school  art  is  trained  by 
practice  under  the  inspiration  and  guidance  of  clear  ideals. 

It  follows  from  this  principle  that  the  essential  step 

in  teaching  any  school  art  is  to  lead  the  pupil  to  form 

correct  ideals  of  what  is  to  be  done  or  pro- 

Forming 

Correct  diiccd,  and  to  this  end  he  should  be  presented 
Ideals.  ^,^J\\\^  the  best  examples  and  models.  In  the 
lower  primary  grades,  children  must  take  their  first 
steps  in  reading,  language,  singing,  drawing,  writing, 
etc.,  by  imitation ;  but,  as  pupils  pass  up  in  the  grades, 
they  attain  the  power  to  act  from  ideals,  and  here  true 
art  training  begins. 

Skill  in  no  art  is  acquired  by  simple  practice.     The 

Comcnian   maxim,  "We  learn  to  do  by  doing,"  is  only 

a   half-truth,  even   when   applied   to   manual 

Comenian 

Maxim  a      skill.      Wc  Icam  to  do  by  doing  under  the 
Half-truth,     inspiration  and  guidance  of  true  ideals.     Sim- 
ple practice  without  such  guidance  never  made  an  artist 


A    TRINITY   OF  PRINCIPLES.  49 

or  an  artisan.  Blind  practice  is  always  and  everywhere 
a  plodder.  The  poorest  teaching,  for  example,  is  often 
done  by  teachers  who  have  grown  gray  in  the  school- 
room. What  is  needed  to  transmute  experience  in 
teaching  into  power  and  skill  is  the  inspiration  of  true 
ideals  and  the  guidance  of  correct  principles.  The 
most  skillful  teaching  the  writer  has  seen  in  years  has 
been  by  teachers  with  gray  hairs. 

The  arts  of  reading,  writing,  language,  music,  etc., 
are  never  properly  taught  by  mere  practice.  Even  the 
mastery  of  the  two  form  arts,  writing  and  ^^  ^^^ 
drawing,  requires  something  more  than  the  leamedby 
mechanical  imitation  of  model  copies  for  a 
given  number  of  minutes  each  day.  The  teacher's 
function  is  to  lead  the  pupils  to  form  clear  and  correct 
ideals,  to  teach  them  the  best  processes  for  attaining 
these  ends,  and  then  to  secure  necessary  practice  under 
the  most  inspiring  guidance.  Automatic  practice  may 
increase  the  mechanical  facility  with  which  pupils  repeat 
known  processes,  but  such  practice  never  corrects  errors 
or  suggests  improved  methods.  It  begets  the  habit 
of  non-attention  to  the  conditions  of  right  action,  and 
creates  mental  habits  which  are  subversive  of  skill. 
>The  mastery  of  any  art  involves  the  acquisition  of  skill 
Lan  realizing  ideals. 

A  weakness  in  much  art  instruction  is  a  failure  to  give 
pupils  a  clear  knozvledge  of  the  processes  by  which  their 
ideals  can  be  realized.  It  is  true  that  this  Knowledge 
knowledge  may  be  slowly  gained  by  tentative  °^  Processes, 
practice,  but,  since  it  is  not  an  end  but  a  means  of  prac- 
tice, the  earlier  it  is  acquired,  the  sooner  will  the  pupil 
master  art  processes.  It  is  true  that  this  guiding  knowl- 
edge cannot  be  acquired  much  in  advance  of  practice. 

ART  OF  TEACHING  —  4 


50  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

Practice  not  only  applies,  but  indirectly  interprets  and 
makes  clearer  the  knowledge  that  guides  it.  While  the 
ideal  guides  the  process  as  a  means  to  the  end,  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  process  as  such  greatly  facilitates  the  reach- 
ing of  the  end.  /The  clearer  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  both\ 

Ahe  end  and  the  process,  the  more  skillful  will  be  his 

\actio^ 

This  fact  exposes  the  fallacy  that  underlies  the  attempt 

to  teach  knowledge  by  the  act  of  embodying  it  in  material 

^,  _,  ,.         forms.      The  child  must  have  an  idea  of  a 

Modeling 

and  cube  or  a  sphere  before  he  can  make  these 
'"^  forms,  except  by  pattern.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  molding  of  the  contours  and  reliefs  of  countries 
in  sand.  A  knowledge  of  contour  and  relief  must  pre- 
cede and  guide  the  molding,  if  not  done  by  pattern.  It 
may  be  added  that  the  production  of  forms  by  pattern 
has  small  educative  value.  Artisans  who  devote  their 
time  to  the  making  of  relief  globes  and  maps  by  pattern 
acquire  thus  little  real  knowledge  of  geography. 

The  final  step  in  art  training  is  practice  guided  by 

principle  or  rule.     The  processes  of  every  art  are  based 

on  principles,  and  these,  when  formulated  for 

Rules. 

guidance,  are  its  rules.  But  these  formal 
rules  are  of  little,  if  any,  value  to  the  young  learner, 
and  hence  they  should  not  be  introduced  early.  The 
old-time  attempt  to  teach  the  art  of  language  by  means 
of  the  rules  of  technical  grammar  is  an  illustration  of 
this  error.  This  attempt  was  based  on  the  false  notion 
that  skill  in  speech  and  writing  is  acquired  through  a 
knowledge  of  tiTe  rules  of  syntax,  an  error  still  too 
evident  in  American  schools,  especially  in  elementary 
schools  whose  pupils  are  too  young  to  apprehend,  much 
less  to  apply,  formal  rules  in  any  art.     In  the  later  and 


A    TRINITY  OF  PRINCIPLES.  5 1 

higher  practice  of  an  art,  a  knowledge  of  its  guiding 
principles  is  of  great  value,  and  these  may  finally  take 
the  place  of  the  living  teacher.  The  principles  and 
rules  of  an  art  are  most  helpful  in  practice  when  they 
are  so  familiar  to  the  artist  as  to  be  observed  without 
being  consciously  in  mind.  It  is  only  when  ideals  and 
rules  become  unconscious  guides  that  true  art  appears. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

A   TRINITY    OF    PROCESSES. 

We  have  now  considered  the  three  fundamental  ends 
to  be  attained  in  teaching,  and  the  three  guiding  princi- 
ples or  laws  to  be  observed  in  their  attainment,  and  are 
thus  prepared  to  consider  the  teaching  processes  that 
embody  these  principles. 

While  there  is  a  great  variety  of  activities  involved  in 
teaching,  these  are  all  included  in  three  fundamental 
processes,  each  capable  of  clear  description 
Teaching     and   Separate    study.      These    teaching   pro- 
Piocesses.     (.ggggg  ^j-e  known  as  instruction,  drilling,  and 
testing.     Every  teaching  exercise  is  one  of  these  pro- 
cesses, or  a  combination  of  two  or  all  of  them. 

The  process  called  instruction  may  be  defined  as  the 

occasioning  of  those  mental  activities  in  the  pupil  that 

result  in  knowledge  and  an  increased  power  to 

Instruction.  ...  .  ,  .., 

k)ioiu.  Instruction  is  the  occasion,  the  pupil  s 
mental  activity  is  the  cause,  and  knowledge  and  know- 
ing power  are  the  results.  It  is  thus  seen  that  instruc- 
tion has  for  its  end  not  only  the  teaching  of  knowledge, 
but  the  training  of  the  power  to  acquire  knowledge. 
In  some  instruction  exercises  knowledge  is  the  chief 
conscious  end,  while  in  other  exercises  training  is 
prominent ;  but  in  all  cases  the  teaching  of  knowledge 
characterizes  the  process  of  instruction.  Moreover, 
instruction  may  be  the  only  process  in  a  teaching  exer- 

52 


A    TRINITY   OF  PROCESSES.  53 

cise,  or  it  may  be  only  preparatory  to  drill  or  practice, 
as  in  teaching  the  school  arts,  or  it  may  alternate  with 
either  of  the  other  processes.  It  will  be  increasingly 
clear  that  instruction  is  a  fundamental  and  most  impor- 
tant teaching  process. 

The  drill  as  a  teaching  process  has  for  its  chief  end 
the  training  of  pozver  and  skill,  especially  skill  in  the 
several  school  arts.     The  drill  is  also  used 

1     ,  The  Drill. 

to  make  clearer  and  hence  more  permanent 
the  results  of  instruction  and  study.  It  is  not  enough 
that  pupils  be  once  led  to  know  facts  or  even  to  reach 
a  truth  by  inductive  steps  under  a  teacher's  guidance. 
They  must  also  acquire  the  power  to  reach  it  again 
with  less  guidance  and  greater  certainty.  These  results 
are  secured  by  repetition  or  practice.  In  elementary 
schools  the  drill  absorbs  full  three  fifths  of  teaching  time 
and  effort ;  and  hence  a  knowledge  of  its  function, 
methods,  and  limitations  is  of  very  great  importance. 

The  test  has  for  its  end  the  disclosing  of  tJie  results 
of  instruction,  drill,  and  stndy,  the  disclosing  of  the 
pupil's  attainments.     The  test  is  the  eve  of 

1-  I  -1  1-  •  r,  The  Test. 

teachmg ;  the  guide  and  mspirer  01  teacher 
and  pupil.  It  not  only  throws  needed  light  upon  the 
teacher's  work,  but  also  awakens  interest,  secures  atten- 
tion, and  adds  energy  and  persistence  to  the  pupil's 
efforts.  The  test  accompanies  and  supports  both  in- 
struction and  drill. 

The  propriety  of  considering  the  test  a  teaching 
process  has  been  questioned,  but  the  objection  has  its 
source  in  the  misconception  that  teaching  and     ^     . 

^  '^  Testing  a 

instruction  are  synonymous  terms.      It  is  true     Teaching 
that  teaching  includes  instruction  as  one  of  its 
processes,  but  all  teaching  is  not  instruction.     Teaching 


54  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

is  the  occasioning  of  those  activities  in  the  learner  that 
result  in  knowledge,  power,  and  skill  (p.  9),  and  hence 
it  clearly  includes  testing.  The  test  adds  efficiency  to 
both  instruction  and  drilling,  and  so  shares  the  results 
of  each  process.  There  is  no  successful  instruction 
without  a  knowledge  of  the  results  attained,  and  the 
more  clearly  these  results  are  known  by  the  teacher, 
the  more  intelligent  will  be  his  efforts  and  the  higher 
his  skill  and  success.  Instruction  is  not  firing  knowl- 
edge at  pupils  in  the  dark.  The  teacher  must  know 
what  his  pupils  know  to  determine  what  they  can  best 
learn  next. 

It  is  not  meant  that  the  teaching  processes  described 

above  are  usually  separate  in  teaching.      On  the  con- 

,    trary,  they  often  succeed  each  other  in  the 

Blending  ai  •'  ■' 

Teaching  samc  excrcisc,  and  as  often,  it  may  be,  blend 
Processes,  ^^j  support  cach  Other.  But  in  most  teach- 
ing exercises  one  of  these  processes  is  the  leading  and 
central  process,  the  others  being  subordinate,  often  inci- 
dental. It  is  important  for  the  teacher  to  know  in 
advance  whether  instruction  or  drilling  or  testing  is  to 
be  the  leading  purpose  of  an  exercise.  The  skillful 
teacher  knows  what  he  is  doing.  His  efforts  are  guided 
by  a  clear  and  definite  aim. 

Teaching  Exercises. 

The  three  teaching  processes  give,  w^hen  used  sepa- 
rately, three  distinct  teaching  exercises,  to  wit :  instruc- 
tion exercises,  drill  exercises,  'and  test  exercises.  But 
in  practice,  as  already  noted,  these  teaching  processes 
are  more  or  less  united,  this  being  specially  true  of 
instruction  and  drilling,  as  in  teaching  the  school  arts 


A    TRINITY   OF  PROCESSES.  55 

(p.  50).  Also  in  teaching  knowledge  repetition  may 
be  necessary  to  deepen  impression  or  to  add  clearness 
to  the  pupil's  apprehension  of  what  is  taught.  Indeed, 
the  union  of  instruction  and  drilling  in  teaching  is  so 
common  that  neither  term  is  ever  technically  used  to 
designate  the  exercise.    On  the  contrary,  such 

•         .  ,,      ,         r  ,  \  The   Lesson. 

an  exercise  is  called  a  Lesson,  the  term  lesson 
being  used  indiscriminately  to  denote  an  instruction 
exercise  or  a  drill  exercise  or  an  exercise  combining 
instruction  and  drilling.  Thus,  we  speak  of  a  lesson 
in  history,  a  lesson  in  hygiene,  a  lesson  in  reading,  a 
lesson  in  drawing,  etc.^ 

The  testing  process  is,  as  will  be  more  fully  shown 
later  (p.  90),  a  necessary  element  in  every  instruction 
or  drill  exercise,  but  its  place  is  subordinate  The 
and  incidental.  When  testing  is  the  chief  pur-  Recitation, 
pose  of  an  exercise,  it  is  a  test  exercise,  and  is  properly 
called  a  Recitation.  The  term  recitation  is  composed 
of  the  Latin  re,  again,  and  citare,  to  tell  or  say ;  and  the 
use  of  the  term  to  denote  a  test  exercise  doubtless  had 
its  origin  in  the  old  practice  of  requiring  pupils  to  repeat 
or  recite  the  words  of  the  book  as  evidence  of  their 
knowledge.  Whatever  may  be  true  as  to  its  original 
use,  there  is  no  better  term  to  designate  this  vital  exer- 
cise in  school  training. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  in  practice  teaching  exercises 
divide  into  two  distinct  classes,  designated  by  the  terms 
/rssons  and  recitations,  the  former  including  instruction 
and  drilling  (testing  being  incidental),  and  the  latter  test- 

'  The  term  lesson  is  also  applied  to  the  subject  or  object  taught  or 
assigned  for  study  ;  also  to  what  may  be  assigned  to  be  done.  But  this 
use  of  the  term  occasions  no  difficulty,  since  the  context  clearly  indicates 
the  sense  in  which  the  word  is  used. 


56  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

ing,  more  commonly  the  oral  test.     There  is  great  prac- 
tical advantage  in  using  the  terms  lesson  and  recitation 
with  this  sharp  distinction  in  meaning.     The 

Proper  Use  ^  ° 

of  These     usc  of  tcmis  in  a  vague  and  indefinite  sense  is 

Terms.  ^j^^  sourcc  of  scrious  confusion  in  pedagogy. 
All  activities  and  processes  that  differ  essentially  ought 
to  be  designated  by  different  terms,  each  used  uniformly 
with  a  definite  meaning. 

The  term  lesson  is  now  generally  used  in  the  sense 
here  indicated.  It  is  common  to  apply  the  term  to  in- 
struction exercises,  and  it  is  even  more  common  to  apply 
it  to  exercises  which  include  both  instruction  and  drill, 
as  in  the  school  arts.  But  the  term  recitation  is  unhap- 
pily used  in  a  more  indefinite  sense,  it  being  often  used, 
especially  by  students  of  German  methods,  to  denote 
Too  wide  any  teaching  exercise.  Nothing  is  gained  in 
the^T°/  theory  or  in  practice  by  the  use  of  the  term 
Recitation,  rccitatiou  in  this  blanket  sense.  We  have 
teaching  exercises  which  are  definitely  known  as  lessons, 
and  there  are  other  teaching  exercises  which  are  not  les- 
sons. What  is  greatly  needed,  both  for  clearness  and 
definiteness,  is  a  term  to  designate  these  non-lesson  exer- 
cises. The  needed  term  is  recitation,  a  word  that  both 
historically  and  properly  designates  the  vital  test  exercise. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  terms  lesson  and  recita- 
tion be  used  in  pedagogy  in  the  definite    senses   here 

indicated.     Such  use  will  emphasize  the  dis- 
use of  ^ 

Terms  in  tinction  bctwccn  these  two  classes  of  exer- 
Pedagogy.  q\^q^^  2i\-\d,  at  thc  samc  time,  will  widen  the 
recognition  of  the  test  exercise  as  a  most  vital  element 
in  school  training.  It  is  only  a  few  years  since  nearly  all 
the  teaching  exercises  in  American  schools,  above  the 
lowest   primary,  were  recitations,  the  lesson  having  a 


A    TRINITY  OF  PROCESSES.  57 

small  place,  especially  the  oral  lesson  for  instruction. 
Now  in  many  schools  the  class  exercises  are  nearly  all 
lessons,  the  recitation  receiving  little  attention.  No 
change  in  teaching  in  the  last  twenty-five  years  has 
been  more  marked  than  this.  The  recitation  with  its 
eye-to-eye  search  has  been  widely  superseded  by  the 
written  test ;  and  teaching  has  become  the  giving  of 
lessons,  too  largely  talking. 

This  marked  change  in  teaching  has  been  attended 
with  both  gains  and  losses,  and  certainly  the  losses  are 
too  serious  to  be  ignored  (p.  1 18).  Pupils  are  change  in 
coming  to  the  high  school  with  little  power  Teaching, 
and  less  habit  of  study,  and  their  dependence  upon  the 
teacher  "to  make  all  things  clear"  is  increasing.  In 
too  many  instances  teaching  has  become  a  process  of 
preparing  pupils  for  written  examinations.  What  is 
needed  is  not  less  fruitful  instruction,  but  more  of  the 
vitalizing  oral  search.  To  secure  this,  it  is  important 
that  the  lesson  and  the  recitation  be  conjoined  as  comple- 
mentary means  of  school  trai)iing ;  and,  to  this  end,  they 
must  be  properly  correlated,  a  word  that  clearly  ex- 
presses the  kind  of  union  needed.  The  manner  in  which 
this  can  be  done  effectively  will  be  made  clear  in  subse- 
quent pages. 

It  is  to  be  noted  here  that  the  terms  lesson  and  reci- 
tation are  applied  in  this  treatise  only  to  teaching  exer- 
cises ;  that  is,  exercises  whose  guiding  ends  are  knowledge, 
power,  and  skill  (p.  26).  There  may  be  exercises  in 
schools,  especially  in  primary  schools,  whose  aim  may 
be  physical  activity,  relief,  recreation,  even  amusement. 
There  is  an  evident  impropriety  in  calling  such  exercises 
lessons,  and  much  greater  impropriety  in  calling  them 
recitations.     They  are  not  teaching  exercises. 


CHAPTER   V. 

METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

It  has  been  assumed  as  an  axiom  of  teaching  that 
instruction  must  be  adapted  to  the  capability  of  the 
The  Infant  Icamcr  (p.  36).  This  adaptation  relates  to  the 
and  Adult,  knowledge  taught  and  also  to  the  method  of 
teaching  it.  Knowledge  which  can  be  readily  taught 
an  adult  may  be  beyond  the  capability  of  the  infant. 
The  infant  is  in  the  perceptive  phase  of  mental  devel- 
opment. His  dominant  mental  activity  is  the  acquisition 
of  primary  knowledge,  and  his  generalizations  are  chiefly 
acts  of  judgment,  and  are  reached  by  short  and  easy 
steps.  The  child  has,  moreover,  a  comparatively  small 
stock  of  ideas  and  facts  for  use  as  materials  for  thought. 
The  adult,  on  the  contrary,  is  in  the  reflective  or  scien- 
tific phase  of  mental  activity.  He  has  acquired  a  large 
stock  of  both  primary  and  general  knowledge,  and  he 
has  also  gained  considerable  power  and  facility  in  the 
higher  thought  processes.  It  is  possible  not  only  to 
teach  the  adult  knovv'ledge  that  is  beyond  the  ability  of 
the  infant,  but  also  to  teach  him  in  a  different  way. 

Between  these  two  periods  of  mental  development 
and  acquisition,  there  are  transitional  phases  in  the  ca- 
Transitionat  pability  of  pupils,  and  corresponding  changes 
Phases.  [^-^  ^j^g  kiuds  of  knowledge  that  can  be  success- 
fully taught.  At  every  step  in  the  school  course  there 
must  be  the  intelligent  adaptation  of  instruction  in  matter 

58 


METHODS    OF  INSTRUCTION.  59 

and  method  to  the  changing  abihty  of  pupils.  This 
makes  instruction  an  art,  and  not  a  mechanical  routine. 
As  already  stated  (p.  35),  the  manner  in  which  the 
mind  acquires  knowledge  necessarily  determines  the 
method  of  teaching   it,  and   this  is  true   at 

°         '  What 

every  stage  of  the  mind's  development.  It  determines 
follows  that  there  must  be  as  many  methods 
of  instruction  as  there  are  different  kinds  of  knowledge 
to  be  taught.  Perceptive  knowledge  is  acquired  by  per- 
ception, representative  knowledge  through  memory  and 
imagination,  and  thought  knowledge  by  thinking,  includ- 
ing generalization,  judging,  and  reasoning.  Since  these 
different  kinds  of  knowledge  are  acquired  in  different 
ways,  they  cannot  be  taught  in  one  way  or  by  the  same 
method. 

These  psychical  facts  afford  an  intelligent  basis  for  a 
helpful  classification  of  methods  of  instruction,  the  term 
method  being  herein  used  in  the  sense  of  an  classes  of 
orderly  and  rational  procedure  to  attain  defi-  Methods, 
nite  results  or  ends.  An  elementary  course  of  instruc- 
tion contains  ( i )  primary  ideas  and  facts,  acquired  largely 
by  observation;  (2)  higher  knowledge,  acquired  by 
thought;  and  (3)  recorded  or  spoken  knowledge,  ac- 
quired from  its  expression  in  language.  These  three 
kinds  of  knowledge  acquired  in  different  ways  give 
three  distinct  methods  of  instruction.  These  methods  are 
known  as  the  Objective  method,  the  Indirect  or  Socratic 
method,  and  the  Direct  or  Telling  method  ;  and  each 
may  be  studied  in  a  thorough  and  practical  manner. 

I.    The  Objective  Method. 

All  primary  ideas  are  occasioned  in  the  mind  by  the 
presence  of  appropriate  objects,  material  or  immaterial. 


60  THE  ART  OF   TEACHING. 

Thus,  the  primary  ideas  of  form,  color,  sound,  relations, 
etc.,  are  jjroduced  by  the  reaction  of  the  mind  on  appro- 

Primary  priatc  objccts.  All  material  objects  are  pre- 
ideas.  sented  to  the  mind  through  some  sense.  The 
object,  thus  presented,  occasions  an  excitation  of  the 
sense,  producing  a  sensation  (feeling),  and  through 
the  sensation  the  mind,  in  an  inexplicable  way,  per- 
ceives or  knows  the  object.  The  result  is  an  idea  ^  of 
the  object. 

A  primary  idea  cannot  be  taught  except  by  present- 
ing to  the  mind  the  object  that  will  occasion  the  neces- 
Primary Ideas  ^'^'^^  activity.     It  cannot  be  taught  by  means 

not  taught  of  a  word,  for  the  reason  that  a  word  can- 
^  °^  ^'  not  occasion  the  proper  activity  of  the  mind. 
A  word  may  occasion  the  reproduction  of  a  known 
idea  associated  with  it,  but  a  word  cannot  occasion  the 
activity  that  results  in  a  nezv  idea.  It  can  only  occasion 
an  idea  of  itself  as  a  sound  or  as  a  form.  An  idea  of 
color,  blue  for  example,  can  be  taught  only  by  present- 
ing the  color  to  the  mind  through  the  eye,  and  an  idea 
of  sound  can  be  taught  only  by  presenting  the  occasion- 
ing object  to  the  mind  through  the  ear.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  children  who  are  born  blind  cannot  be  taught 
color,^  and  those  who  are  born  deaf  cannot  be  taught 
sound. 

1  The  term  idea  is  here  used  in  the  sense  of  percept  or  sense  concept, 
as  the  result  may  be. 

2  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  blind  learn  to  recognize  color,  but  this  is 
true  only  in  the  sense  that  they  learn  to  recognize,  to  some  extent,  colored 
objects,  as  flannels  of  different  colors.  This  is  done  by  the  sense  of  touch 
through  which  the  mind  perceives  the  associated  temperature,  not  color. 
Black  flannel,  for  example,  feels  "  black-warm  " ;  red  flannel,  "  red-warm  " ; 
white  flannel,  "white-cold";  blue  flannel,  "blue-cold,"  etc.  What  the 
mind  perceives  is  the  characteristic  associated  temperature. 


METHODS   OF  INSTRUCTION.  6 1 

This  principle  applies  also  to  the  teaching  of  facts 
that  involve  new  primary  ideas.  Such  facts  can  be 
taught  only  by  first  occasioning  the  new  ideas.  The 
fact  that  honey  is  sweet  cannot  be  taught  to  a  mind  that 
has  not  the  idea  denoted  by  "honey"  and  "sweet." 
The  relations  between  ideas  cannot  be  known  if  the 
ideas  are  not  known. 

It  follows  from  the  principles  reached  above  that 
all  primary  ideas  and  facts  in  every  branch  of  knowl- 
edge must  be  taught  by  presenting  the  ap- 
propriate objects  to  the  learner's  mind.  This  ideas  taught 
is  known  as  the  objective  method  of  instruc-  °'^J«='^tiveiy. 
tion.  It  is  characterized  by  the  study  of  things  and 
phenomena  as  a  means  of  knowing  these  objects.  The 
objective    method  of  instruction  may  be  de-     „^.     . 

■"  -'  Objective 

fined  as  the  presenting  of  objeets  to  the  mind  Method 
in  such  manner  as  to  occasion  those  activities  ^  ^^^' 
that  result  in  a  knoivledge  of  the  objects  presented.  It 
includes  the  exciting  of  curiosity,  the  awakening  of 
interest,  the  directing  of  observation,  the  fixing  of  atten- 
tion, and  all  other  means  that  assist  the  pupil  in  know- 
ing the  object.  The  study  of  an  object  by  observation 
includes  not  only  perception,  but_conrparispn,  judging, 
and  other  thought  processes. 

The  objective  method  is  used  increasingly  in  all 
grades  of  schools  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  univer- 
sity. It  is  used  in  teaching  the  first  ideas  ^^ 
of  number,  including  simple  number  relations  ^'^^  u^^- 
and  processes  ;  the  primary  facts  of  geography  ;  nature 
lessons ;  the  natural  and  physical  sciences ;  and  all 
other  branches  that  contain  objective  knowledge.  In 
secondary  schools  and  higher  institutions  it  is  often 
called  the  "  Laboratory  Method."     It  is  also  used   as 


62  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

an  initial  step  in  the  process  of  teaching  thought  knowl- 
edge, this  being  specially  true  in  teaching  the  inductive 
sciences.  No  change  in  instruction  in  science  has  been 
happier  than  the  early  study  of  things  in  place  of  the 
study  of  what  books  say  about  things.^ 

The  objective  method  is  often   used   improperly  by 

teachers  who  do  not  clearly  understand  its  true  function. 

This  error  occurs  in  teaching  number  when 

Abuse  of  ° 

Objective  objects  are  used  after  they  have  served  their 
Method,  purpose,  and  especially  when  the  measure- 
ment of  concrete  magnitudes  is  made  the  continued 
means  of  teaching  number  relations  and  processes. 
It  always  appears  when  a  method  is  made  an  end  in 
teaching  and  is  manipulated  as  such.^  This  folly  f 
reaches  its  climax  when  an  initial  step  in  a  teaching  ^^ 
process  is  exploited  as  a  metJiod  of  teaching  the  subject. 
In  no  other  work  is  the  pedantry  of  the  method  grinder 
more  obvious  than  in  primary  instruction. 

2.    Indirect  or  Socratic  Method. 

Thinking  first  appears  in  the  forming  of  general 
concepts.  When  the  mind  has  concepts  of  several 
General  individual  things  in  a  class,  it  passes  by  a 
Concepts,  proccss  Called  generalization  to  the  general 
concept  that  represents  the  class.  Thus  from  con- 
cepts of  several  individual  oranges,  it  passes  to  the 
general  concept  expressed  by  the  word  orange. 

1  When  the  writer  was  in  college,  he  studied  niineralogy  from  a  text- 
book, without  seeing  the  minerals,  much  less  handling  them.  He  after- 
ward found  that  his  real  knowledge  of  minerals  was  largely  limited  to 
those  which  he  had  seen  and  handled  in  his  boyhood  in  the  country. 

2  The  author's  attention  was  recently  called  to  an  official  circular  letter 
addressed  to  teachers  in  which  were  the  questions:  "Do  you  teach  the 
Synthetic  method  ?  "     "  Do  you  teach  the  Grube  method  ?  " 


METHODS   OF  INSTRUCTION.  63 

Another  step  in  thinking  is  the  comparing  of  known 
things  and  discerning  their  common  quahties  or  hkeness. 
A  common    quahty  may   be   thought    of    in 

Judging. 

connection  with  the  objects  compared,  as 
"yellow  oranges,"  or  it  may  be  formally  thought  or 
affirmed,  as,  "  These  oranges  are  yellow."  These  forms 
of  thinking  are  called  judging,  the  first,  "yellow 
oranges,"  simple  judging,  and  the  second,  "These 
oranges  are  yellow,"  formal  judging,  the  resulting 
thought  being  called  a  jiidgincnt. 

A  true  judgment  is  a  fact,  and  hence  by  thinking  the 
mind  passes  from  individual  concepts  to  general  con- 
cepts, and  then  to  facts,  —  to  particular  facts,  pacts  of 
as,  "  This  tree  has  roots  "  ;  to  general  facts.  Judgment, 
as,  "Trees  have  roots."  The  general  facts  reached  by 
judging  are  limited  to  observation  and  experience.  They 
are  not  universal  facts.  The  judgment,  "Trees  have 
roots"  is  at  first  limited  to  known  trees,  though  stated 
as  if  it  were  universal. 

But  the  mind  is  endowed  with  the  power  to  pass  from 
facts  of  judgment,  whether  particular  or  general,  to  uni- 
versal truths.     Thus,  the  mind  may  pass  from 

-'    "^  Universal 

"  This  elephant  has  a  trunk  "  to  "  Elephants  Truths  by 
have  trunks"  (meaning  known  elephants),  and  ^"'^"'=''°" 
from  these  to  "  All  elephants  have  trunks."  The  first 
two  of  these  facts  are  facts  of  judgment,  and  are  limited 
to  experience  ;  the  last  is  a  universal  fact,  and  is  reached 
by  a  thinking  process  called  reasoning.  The  mind  sees 
in  the  particular  facts  a  cause,  or  reason,  for  the  general 
inference.  When  this  discerned  reason  is  a  necessity  of 
nature  or  thought,  the  general  truth  is  certain  knowledge. 
This  process  of  passing  from  particulars  to  generals  is 
called  inductive  reasoning  or,  more  simply,  induction. 


64  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

The  mind  has  also  the  power  to  discern  in  a  general 

truth  the  validity  of  all  included  facts,  thus  descending 

from   a  knowledge  of  universal  truths  to  a 

De<luction. 

cognition  of  particular  facts.  Thus,  from  the 
general,  "  All  magnets  attract  iron,"  it  infers  that  a  mag- 
net will  attract  a  particular  iron  nail.  This  mode  of  think- 
ing is  called  deductive  reasoning  or,  simply,  dediicti07i. 

It  is  thus  made  evident  that   only  a  small    part   of 
human    knowledge  is  acquired    by  simple  observation. 
Mind's       It  is  an  innate  impulse  of  the  mind  to  pass 
Impulse,      from  the  facts  of  observation  and  judgment 
to  the  universal  truths  of  reason.     It  is  true  that  in  ob- 
servation thought  plays  an  important  part,  so  that  the 
mind  knows  more  than  the  senses  disclose,  but  the  eye  of 
reason  sees  truth  that  lies  far  beyond  the  ken  of  sense. 
The  senses  see  only  the  present  phenomena  of  nature, 
but  thought  interprets  observed  phenomena  and  discerns 
nature's  marvelous  truths,  forces,  and  laws. 
"     These   psychical    facts    make   it    possible   to    teach 
thought  knowledge  by  beginning  with  known  facts,  and 
Indirect      leading   the    pupil  by  tJiinking  to  know   the 
Method.      general  and  the  universal.     The   pupil  may 
be  led  to  recall  objects  previously  known,  and  then  by 
thought  to  discern    their    likeness    or  difference,  their 

L relations  as  parts  and  wholes,  as  means  and  ends,  as 
causes  and  effects,  etc.  In  all  this  the  teacher  is  only 
the  occasioner  of  the  pupil's  thinking.  He  does  not 
tell  the  pupil  what  he  wishes  him  to  know,  but  leads 
him  to  discover  and  know  it  for  himself. 

This   method  of   instruction  is    known  as  the   indi- 
Training      vect  OX  training  method.     Its  nature  is  clearly 
Maxim.      indicated  by  the    maxim.  Never  tell  a  pupil 
anything  which  you  can  lead  Jiiin  to  know  and  tell  you. 


METHODS   OF  INSTRUCTION.  6$ 

It  is  also  called  the  Socratic  method,  having  been  the 
characteristic    method    of    Socrates,    the   great    Greek 
teacher,  and  the  most  famous  teacher  of  anti-       socratic 
quity.     He  began  with  what  his  pupil  knew,       Method. 
and  then  skillfully  led  him  to  know  even  the  profound 
truths  of  philosophy. 

The  two  methods  of  instruction  now  considered,  the 
objective  and  the  indirect,  are  embodied  in  several  well- 
known  maxims,  reached   from    time  to  time      primary 
by  the  great  reformers  in  education,  and  spe-      Maxims, 
cially  developed  by  Pestalozzi.     Seven  of  these  maxims 
may  be  stated  as  follows : 

1.  Observation  before  reasoning. 

2.  The  concrete  before  the  abstract,  or  sense  knowledge 
before  thought  knowledge. 

3.  Facts  before  definitions  or  principles. 

4.  Processes  before  rales. 

5.  From  the  particular  to  the  general. 

6.  ■  From  the  simple  to  the  complex. 

7.  From  the  knoivn  to  the  related  unknown. 

These  several  maxims  specially  relate  to  elementary 
instruction,  and  they  are  not  presented  as  universal  prin- 
ciples of  teaching.     For  example,  the  maxim,         ^^^ 
"  Processes  before  rules,"  is  an  important  prin-     universal 
ciple  in  teaching  arithmetic,  and  also  elemen-      ""'^'^  ^^ 
tary  algebra,  both  branches  being  best  taught  inductively,^ 

^If  the  maxim,  "Processes  before  rules,"  be  accepted  as  a  sound  prin- 
ciple in  teaching  arithmetic  and  algebra,  then  the  rules  should  follow,  and 
not  precede,  the  problems  in  text-books.  One  of  the  sanest  statements 
in  the  report  of  the  "  Committee  of  Ten  "  is  that  in  arithmetic  all  princi- 
ples and  rules  should  lie  derived  inductively,  and  that  the  rules  should 
come  "a/  the  end,  rather  than  at  the  beginning  of  the  subject."  The 
same  is  true  in  elementary  algebra,  since  in  moat  cases  the  rules  can  be 
derived  from  the  processes. 

ART    OF  TEACHING  —  5 


66  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

but  no  wise  teacher  would  accept  it  as  a  guiding  prin- 
ciple in  teaching  higher  mathematics.  The  maxim  does 
not  apply  to  such  conventional  rules  in  arithmetic  as 
partial  payments,  annual  interest,  etc.,  —  rules  which  are 
not  reached  inductively,  but  are  a  statement  of  what  is 
law  or  custom. 

A  like  limitation  applies  to  the  maxim,  "  From  the  par- 
ticular to  the  general."     In  higher  instruction  the  true 
, .   .     .        order  may  be    from  the  general  to  the  par- 

Limitation  ■'  °  '  _ 

in  Higher  ticular,  this  being  always  true  in  deductive 
Instruction,  pj-ocesses.  It  is,  howcvcr,  to  be  noted  that 
this  inverse  order  is  possible  only  when  the  mind  is 
in  possession  of  those  primary  ideas  and  facts  which 
are  necessary  to  the  apprehension  of  the  abstract  and 
gene4"al.  The  maxim  is  a  true  principle  in  the  teaching 
of  the  elements  of  all  branches  of  knowledge,  and  also 
in  teaching  all  inductive  knowledge. 

These  several  maxims  all  involve  the  principle  that 
there  is  a  7iatnral  order  in  which  the  mind    acquires 

Natural       knowledge,  an  order  that  should  be  intelli- 

order  geutly  obscrvcd  in  elementary  instruction 
and  training.  These  maxims  do  not,  however,  imply 
that  there  should  be  long  or  even  distinct  intervals 
between  observation  and  reasoning,  or  between  any  pri- 
mary or  lower  activity  and  the  related  higher.  The 
mind  by  its  own  impulse  and  activity  passes  from  obser- 
vation to  thought,  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract, 
from  the  known  to  the  related  unknown,  etc.,  and  it 
is  not  possible  to  separate  these  related  activities  in  a 
course  of  study.  Their  true  sequence  is  best  observed 
by  the  living  teacher  in  the  details  of  instruction. 

It  is  ever  to  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  child  observes 
as  a  child,  thinks  as  a  child,  and  reasons  as  a  child  in 


METHODS   OF  INSTRUCTION.  6/ 

his  psychical  condition.  It  is  a  serious  mistake  to  at- 
tempt to  force  the  young  mind  to  do  what  it  has  not  the 
ability  to  do  successfully.  Scientific  knowl-  chiid 
edge  must  wait  until  pupils  have  come  to  the  Limitations, 
period  of  scientific  thought.  The  primary  pupil  acquires 
even  elementary  knowledge  slowly.  There  is,  however, 
danger  of  falling  into  the  opposite  error,  and  keeping 
the  pupil  in  a  lower  activity  when  he  has  the  impulse 
and  the  ability  for  a  higher  activity.  This  error  is  com- 
mon in  objective  instruction,  children  being  kept  swing- 
ing on  the  gate  of  sense  when  they  are  prepared  to  make 
easy  and  fruitful  excursions  into  the  garden  of  thought. 

3.    The  Direct  or  Telling  Method. 

The  direct  method  of  instruction  is  the  occasioning 
of  the  proper  activity  of  the  learner's  mind  by  means  of 
laiio-naze,  oral  or  zvrittcn.     It  is  the  making   „ 

<=><->  *-•     Communtca- 

of  knowledge  coimnon  to  teacher  and  pupil  tion  of 
by  its  expression,  called  the  communication  "°^  ^  ^^ 
of  knowledge.  The  possibility  of  occasioning  knowl- 
edge in  another  mind  by  means  of  words  is  a  matter  of 
common  experience,  and  on  the  certainty  of  the  knowl- 
edge thus  acquired  are  based  human  action  and  conduct 
of  the  highest  interest  and  importance.  It  is  this  func- 
tion of  language  that  makes  speech  one  of  man's  best 
endowments. 

While  knowledge  cannot  be  transferred  from  one 
mind  to  another,  it  may  be  communicated  by  means 
of  language  if  the  words  used  occasion  the    ^    ,.  . 

°       o  Condition  of 

proper  knowing  activity.      A  knowledge  of    communica- 
new  facts  may  be  occasioned  by  presenting        *'°"' 
to  the  mind  known  objects  in  new  relations,  and  this 
may  be  done  by  means  of  language. 


68  THE  ART   OF   TEACHIXG. 

It  has  been  urged  that  though  the  mind  may  clearly  ap- 
prehend a  relation  expressed  by  words,  it  does  not  know 
Objection  ^^at  the  relation  thus  expressed  is  real  or  true; 
Answered,  that  this  is  accepted  on  the  testimony  of  an- 
other mind,  and  hence  the  result  is  iiiforviation,  not 
knowledge.  This  is  doubtless  true  of  much  knowl- 
edge communicated  by  means  of  language.  There  is 
an  element  of  faith  in  its  acceptance  as  real,  but  this 
is  not  true  of  all  communicated  knowledge.  On  the 
contrary,  many  facts  thus  presented  to  the  mind  are 
known  to  be  true  as  soon  as  they  are  apprehended. 
Their  reality  is  known  by  an  intuitive  or  thought  pro- 
cess, and  the  result  is  knowledge.  For  example,  the 
statement,  "  The  source  of  a  stream  is  higher  than  its 
mouth,"  is  seen  to  be  true  when  clearly  apprehended, 
provided  the  mind  has  the  necessary  knowledge  of  run- 
ning water.  The  same  is  true  of  the  statement,  "  A  piece 
of  lead  is  heavier  than  an  equal  volume  of  iron."  This 
fact  may  be  clearly  apprehended  by  the  mind  that  has 
a  clear  concept  or  idea  for  each  word  in  the  statement, 
and  its  trueness  is  seen  if  the  mind  has  the  necessary 
knowledge  of  lead  and  iron. 

It  is  thus  seen    that  the  teaching  of    knowledge  by 

means    of    language  depends  primarily  on  the    use   of 

words  that  express  to  the  learner  known  con- 

Conditions  ^ 

to  be  cepts  and  ideas.  The  sentence,  "  The  parrot 
Observed,  j^  j^^  ^.j^^  cagc,"  cxprcsscs  a  fact  only  to  the 
mind  that  knows  the  meaning  of  "  parrot,"  "  cage,"  and 
"in."  The  clearer  the  meaning  of  these  words  to  the 
learner,  the  clearer  will  be  his  knowledge  of  the  fact 
expressed.  This  shows  that  great  care  and  skill  are 
required  to  teach  knowledge  by  means  of  language. 
Objective  and  concrete  instruction  must  often  prepare 


METHODS    OF  hXSTRUCTION.  69 

the  way  for  the  use  of  the  direct  method ;  and  this  is 
specially  true,  as  will  be  shown  later,  when  knowledge  is 
to  be  gained  from  the  printed  page.  The  fact  has  been 
noted  (p.  43)  that  a  pupil  may  know  the  statement  of  a 
truth  without  knowing  the  truth  stated. 

But  language  is  at  best  an  imperfect  means  of  express- 
ing human  thought,  and  this  is  specially  true  in  the 
instruction  of  the   young.      Most  words  are 

.....  ,      .  .     .  niustrations. 

materialistic  in  their  origin,  and  hence  they 
best  express  the  ideas  and  facts  of  nature  and  common 
life.  But  even  here  the  teacher  is  often  obliged  to  sup-j 
plement  language  by  illustration,  as  by  diagrams,  maps, 
sketches,  pictures,  models,  stereopticon  views,  etc.  In 
direct  instruction  the  abstract  is  often  made  plain  by  the 
concrete,  the  general  by  the  particular,  the  complex  by 
the  simple,  the  unknown  by  the  related  known,  etc. 
The  deeper  truths  of  ethics  and  religion  may  by  illustra- 
tion be  brought  within  the  comprehension  of  the  learner. 
This  is  the  significance  of  the  parable,  the  fable,  the 
allegory,  etc.  The  little  girl's  notion  of  a  parable  as 
"an  earthly  story  with  a  heavenly  meaning"  is  not  a 
bad  definition.  Indeed,  so  necessary  is  the  use  of  illus- 
trations in  direct  teaching  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  an 
important  feature,  if  not  a  part  of  the  method.  In  pre- 
senting the  occasions  of  knowledge  to  the  young  learn- 
er's mind,  language  must  often  be  thus  supplemented, 
for  words  are  at  best  imperfect  signs  of  ideas. 

It  may  properly  be  noted  here  that  the  illustrative 
method  of  teaching  is  not  the  same  as  the  objective. 
In  objective  instruction  the  fact  taught  re-  niustrative 
lates  to  the  object  presented ;  is,  in  a  sense,  i"s*''"<=''°" 
in  the  object.  On  the  contrary,  an  illustra-  objective, 
tion  throws  light  upon  a  fact  or  truth  that  lies  outside 


70  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

of  itself.  Our  Lord  used  the  illustrative  method  in 
teaching  spiritual  truth.  He  did  not  give  object  lessons. 
The  truth  taught  was  not  in  the  parable,  certainly  with 
few  exceptions,  if  any. 

It  may  here  be  added  more  explicitly  that  the  direct 
illustrative  method  of  instruction  is  in  harmony  with  the 

Direct  psychical  fact  that  knowledge  is  possessed 
niustrative  only  by  the  mind  that  puts  forth  the  act  of 
knowing  (p.  33).  It  is  also  in  full  agreement 
with  the  principle  that  knowledge  can  be  taught  only 
by  occasioning  the  appropriate  activities  of  the  learner's 
mind.  The  end  sought  by  the  method,  as  well  as  by  the 
objective  and  indirect  methods,  is  the  occasioning  of  the 
proper  act  of  knowing.  It  is  neither  a  talking  nor  a 
cramming  process.  It  is  a  true  method  of  instruction, 
though  easily  abused. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  note  that  school  courses  of 
study  contain  much  knowledge  that  can  be  taught  only 
by  the  direct  or  telling  method.  This  is  true  of  biogra- 
phy, history,  civics,  hygiene,  and  other  branches,  and  all 
names  must  be  taught  directly.  The  art  of  reading 
is  primarily  the  getting  of  knowledge  from  printed  or 
written  language  ;  and  book  study  is  the  pupil's  per- 
sistent effort  "to  pick  thought  out  of  its  verbal  husk," 
as  President  Woolsey,  of  Yale,  once  put  it.  It  is  one 
of  the  chief  functions  of  the  school  to  train  the  pupil's 
power  to  acquire  knowledge  from  books,  to  master  the 
printed  page. 

The  three  fundamental  methods  of  instruction,  now 

considered,  are  sometimes  united  in  the  same  exercise. 

Union  of      In  a  simple  lesson  on  an  object,  pupils  may 

Methods,     i^g  ]g(j   j^Q^-   Qj^iy  tQ  observe  accurately,   but 

also  by  thinking  to  know  more  than  the  senses  disclose ; 


METHODS    OF  INSTRUCTION.  J I 

and  the  telling  of  some  fact  or  incident  may  excite  curi- 
osity, deepen  interest,  and  sustain  needed  attention. 
The  present  object  may  be  only  a  stimulus  to  the  mind 
in  thought  activities,  and  this  is  often  true  in  all  grades 
of  instruction. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

OTHER   METHODS   OF   INSTRUCTION. 

There  are  other  methods  of  instruction  that  receive 
more  or  less  attention  in  works  on  pedagogy.  Two  of 
these  related  methods  are  called  the  Ajialytic  and  the 
Synthetic. 

Analytic  and  Synthetic. 

In  the  analytic  method,  knowledge  is  taught  by  begin- 
ning with  a  whole  and  proceeding  by  an  analytic  process 
to  its  elements  or  constituent  parts.     In  the 

Analytic  and  ^ 

Synthetic  synthctic  method  knowledge  is  taught  by 
Methods,  beginning  with  the  elements  or  constituent 
parts  and  proceeding  by  synthesis  to  the  whole.  Thus, 
a  word  is  taught  analytically  when  it  is  first  presented 
as  a  whole,  a  sound  or  a  form,  and  then  by  analysis  its 
elements,  sounds  or  letters.  A  word  is  taught  syntheti- 
cally by  beginning  with  its  elementary  sounds  or  its 
letters  and  then  forming  the  word  by  a  synthesis  of 
these  elements. 

But,   as   Sir  William   Hamilton   has   shown,   analysis 

and  synthesis  are  necessary  correlates.     If  either  is  in- 

Anaiysis      cludcd  in  a  complete  process  of  knowing,  the 

^  ^"'^  .       other   is   also    present.      Thus,    the   analysis 

Synthesis  ^  ■' 

Correlates,  of  a  word  into  its  elements  is  attended  with 
a  synthesis  of  these  elements  into  the  word.  The  mind 
passes  from  the  whole  to  the  parts,  and  then  from  the 
parts  back  to  a  more  definite  whole.     The  same  is  true 

72 


OTHER  METHODS   OF  INSTRUCTION.  yt, 

when  the  initial  process  is  synthetic.  The  mind  passes 
from  the  synthesized  whole  back  to  its  constituent  parts, 
and  thus  a  vague  whole  may  be  made  more  definite. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  there  is  no  complete  separation  of 
analysis  and  synthesis  in  methods  of  instruction.  The 
method  called  analytic  includes  synthesis,  and  the  method 
called  synthetic  includes  analysis.  It  is  the  initial  pro- 
cess that  gives  name  to  the  method.  When  instruction 
begins  with  analysis,  it  is  called  analytic,  and  when  it 
begins  with  synthesis,  it  is  called  synthetic. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  all  subjects  are  best  taught 
by  the  analytic  method,  that  is,  by  beginning  with  the 
whole.  This  may  be  true  in  teaching  objects 
that  can  be  presented  to  the  mind  as  a  whole,  Method  not 
as  a  plant,  an  animal,  a  picture,  a  machine,  General, 
etc.,  but  all  subjects  cannot  be  thus  presented.  Biog- 
raphy and  history  cannot  thus  be  taught,  since  at  first 
the  pupil  has  no  known  whole  to  analyze.  He  reaches 
the  whole  by  a  progressive  synthesis  of  elements  as  they 
are  known.  A  knowledge  of  the  history  of  a  country, 
for  example,  is  necessarily  reached  by  synthesis,  the 
whole  being  too  vague  for  analysis.  Even  the  child's 
little  world  of  home  is  the  product  of  many  acts  of 
synthesis.  In  short,  if  the  whole  cannot  be  presented 
to  the  pupil's  mind,  instruction  must  begin  with  what 
can  be  presented,  the  parts,  and  the  whole  then  reached 
by  synthesis.  It  is  not  meant  that  the  elements  are 
at  first  known  as  constituent  parts,  for  this  would  in- 
volve a  prior  knowledge  of  the  whole.  They  may  first 
be  known  as  individual  facts. 

In  actual  practice  these  two  processes  are  usually 
united.  This  is  true  even  in  teaching  the  arts  in  which 
the  pupil's  activity  is  chiefly  synthetic.     In  teaching  pen- 


/ 


74  THE   ART   OF  TEACHING. 

manship,  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  may  be  analyzed  into 

their  elements  or  principles,  and  by  practice  the  pupils 

may    learn    to    form    these    elements,    and 

Their  Union.  ,   .  ,  .  ,  ,         , 

then  to  combme  them  mto  letters,  the  let- 
ters into  words,  the  words  into  sentences,  etc.  As  a 
preparation  for  this  synthetic  practice,  the  pupils  may 
be  taught  the  analysis  of  each  letter,  and  the  manner  in 
which  letters  are  united  in  forming  words;  but  the  fact 
remains  that  writing  is  a  synthetic  process,  and  skill  is 
acquired  only  by  synthetic  practice. 

It  is  true  that  the  teacher's  preparation  may  properly 
include  an  analysis  of  the  subject  to  be  taught,  and  the 
Teacher's  rcsults  of  this  aualysis  may  guide  him  in 
Preparation,  teaching  it.  But  in  order  to  make  such  an 
analysis,  the  teacher  must  have  ^  kiiozvlcdge  of  the  sub- 
ject, the  very  result  to  be  attained  by  the  pupil 
through  instruction.  It  is  also  true  that  some  of  the 
elements  of  a  subject  may  be  taught  analytically  even 
when  the  whole  is  reached  by  synthesis. 

There  does  not  seem  to  be  sufficient  ground  for  an 
attempt  to  base  general  methods  of  instruction  on  these 
Applied  to  correlative  activities.  The  descriptive  terms. 
Processes,  analytic  and  synthetic,  are  more  properly  ap- 
plied io  processes,  as  in  the  expressions  chemical  analysis, 
botanical  analysis,  grammatical  analysis,  phonic  analysis, 
phonic  synthesis,  synthetic  division,  synthetic  exercises 
in  language,  synthetic  construction,  etc.  All  art  processes 
are  synthetic. 

Inductive  and  Deductive. 

Two  other  related  mental  processes,  induction  and 
deduction,  have  been  made  the  basis  of  methods  of 
instruction.     As  already  shown  (p.  63),  a  thought  pro- 


OTHER  METHODS    OF  INSTRUCTION.  75 

cess  is  inductive  when  it  begins  with  particular  facts 
and   by  an    inference  reaches  a  general  truth  or  prin- 
ciple ;    and   a  thought  process    is    deductive     induction 
when  it  begins  with  a  general  truth  or  prin-         and 
ciple    and    by    reasoning    deduces    included 
truths  or  facts.    But  it  is  not  possible  to  make  these  two 
processes  the  basis  of  general  methods  of  instruction. 
All  general  facts  and  truths  are  not  reached  by  induc- 
tion,  and   most  particular  facts  cannot  be    known  by 
deduction.     Only  inductive    knowledge   can  be  taught 
inductively    and    only    deductive    knowledge    can    be 
reached  deductively.     It  is  thus  seen  that  the  inductive 
and  deductive  methods  of  teaching  are  each  limited  in 
application,  and  hence  are  not  general  methods. 

It  is  further  to  be  noted  that  while  inductive  instruc- 
tion is  synthetic  and  deductive  instruction  is,  in  a  sense, 
analytic,^  only  a  comparatively  small  part  of      Limits  of 
synthetic  teaching  is  inductive  and,  perhaps,  a     '"'^^nd"" 
smaller  part  of  analytic  teaching  is  deductive.     Deduction. 
The  constituent  parts  of  a  sentence  or  a  landscape  can 
be  taught  analytically,  but  not  by  deduction ;    and  the 
facts  of  biography  and  history  may  be  grouped  by  syn- 
thesis, but  rarely  by  induction.     The  inductive  method 
is  limited  to  the  teaching  of  inductive  knozuledge,  and 
hence  may   properly  be  used  in   teaching  subjects   in 
arithmetic,   algebra,   physics,   and  other    inductive    sci- 
ences.    The  deductive  method  has  a  comparatively  small 

^  Several  writers  on  pedagogy  treat  the  inductive  method  as  analytic, 
and  the  deductive  method  as  synthetic.  It  is  not  evident  on  what  ground 
the  passing  by  inference  from  particulars  to  a  general  is  called  analysis,  or 
the  passing  by  reasoning  from  a  general  to  its  included  particulars  is  called 
synthesis.  The  reverse  is  true.  The  inductive  process  is  synthetic  and 
the  deductive  process  is  analytic,  certainly  so  far  as  analysis  and  synthesis 
are  present  in  these  processes. 


^6  THE  ART   OF   TEACHLKG. 

place  in  elementary  instruction.  It  is  very  important 
that  teachers  see  clearly  the  use  and  limitations  of  induc- 
tive and  deductive  instruction. 

There  is   perhaps  no  method  of  teaching  more  fre- 
quently misused  than  the  inductive.     Pupils  are  led  to 
generalize  facts  without  seeing  the  reason  for 

Misuse  of        *="         _  *=• 

Inductive  the  inference.  Different  kinds  of  paper  are 
burned,  and  pupils  are  permitted  to  infer, 
"  All  paper  will  burn."  They  may  learn  afterward  that 
asbestos  paper  will  not  burn.  They  are  shown  that  heat 
expands  an  iron  ring,  a  brass  ring,  a  copper  ring,  the 
glass  stopper  to  a  bottle,  etc.,  and  they  jump  to  the  con- 
clusion, "  Heat  expands  all  solids."  They  may  soon 
learn  that  heat  does  not  expand  wood,  brick,  tile,  ice, 
and  several  other  solids.  Attention  is  called  to  the  color 
of  sheep,  and  all  the  sheep  seen  by  the  pupils  are  white, 
and  they  are  permitted  to  infer,  "  All  sheep  are  white." 
These  are  given  as  specimens  of  the  bad  work  done  in 
the  name  of  induction.  The  inference  is  too  often  "  a 
leap  in  the  dark."  A  teacher  who  uses  the  inductive 
method  ought  to  know  that  all  generalizations  are  not 
made  by  induction.^ 

Many  general  facts  are  reached  by  simple  comparison 
and  judging,  and  are  limited  to  one's  observation  and 
experience.  They  are  not  universal  truths,  and  should 
not  be  stated  in  the  form  of  universals. 


Concentration  and  Correlation. 

In  the  past  few  years  very  earnest  efforts  have  been 
made  to  secure  the  adoption  of  what  is  indiscriminately 

1  For  the  true  nature  of  induction,  see  White's  "  Elements  of  Pedagogy," 
pp.  70-75. 


OTHER  METHODS   OF  INSTRUCTION.  yy 

called  the  "Concentration"  and  the  "Correlation" 
method  of  teaching,  the  characteristic  feature  of  the 
method  being  the  grouping  of  several  studies  around 
one  study  as  a  "central  core."     So  far,  the    ^ 

-'  Concentra- 

advocates  of  this  method  have  not  been  able     tion  and 
to  agree  as  to  the  number  of  such  cores  in  a    ^°"='**'°" 
course  of  study,   opinion  varying  from    Ziller's    single 
core  to  De  Garmo's  three   cores.      The    advocates   of 
Ziller's  single  core  are  not  agreed,  though  few  in  number, 
on  the  branch  that  should  be  made  this  core. 

In  another  place  ^  we  have  attempted  to  indicate  the 
extent  to  which  this  principle  of  unification  (concentra- 
tion.-') can  be  applied  in  an  elementary  course    ^  . 

^  .  ■'  Coordinate 

of  instruction.  It  is  there  assumed  that  the  Groups  of 
studies  in  a  school  course  naturally  fall  into  studies, 
coordinate  groups  or  unities,  each  group  having  its  own 
principle  of  development  and  law  of  sequence.  There 
are,  in  the  opinion  of  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,^  at  least  five  such 
coordinate  groups  of  elementary  studies,  and  including 
industrial  and  manual  art,  there  are  six  groups  in  the 
upper  grades.  No  one  of  these  six  coordinate  groups  can 
be  unified  with  another  coordinate  group  except  by  mak- 
ing one  subordinate  to  the  other,  both  in  development 
and  sequence.  But  it  is  clear  that  coordinate  groups  of 
studies  cannot  be  unified  on  the  principle  of  subordina- 
tion, and  so,  theoretically  at  least,  the  unification  of  the 
studies  of  the  school  course  turns  on  the  existence  of  two 
or  more  coordinate  groups  in  such  course.  Coordination 
of  studies  excludes  snbordinatioti. 

1 "  Isolation  and  Unification  as  Bases  of  Courses  of  Study,"  Proceed- 
ings of  National  Educational  Association,  1896,  pp.  316-323. 

2  "The  Necessity  for  Five  Coordinate  Groups  of  Studies,"  —  Dr.  W.  T. 
Harris,  Proceedings  of  N.  E.  A.,  1896,  pp.  287-296. 


yS  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

In  determining  the  extent  to  which  the  principle  of 

unification   can  be  applied,  it  is  important  to  see  the 

Correlation     distinction    bctwecn    the    unifying   of    allied 

within        subjects  in  the  same  ^roup  and  the  unifvine: 

Coordinate  J  <?>  /  J       fc> 

Groups.  of  subjects  that  belong  in  dijfcrcnt  coordinate 
groups,  and,  with  still  more  marked  contrast,  the  unifi- 
cation of  coordinate  groups.  There  is  often  a  close 
and  obvious  relation  between  subjects  in  the  same  nat- 
ural group,  and  their  union  at  different  points  may  be 
both  feasible  and  desirable.  Take,  for  example,  the 
several  subjects  included  in  the  mathematical  group. 
Whether  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry  shall  be 
taught  tandem  or  the  elements  of  algebra  and  concrete 
geometry  be  run  abreast  of  arithmetic  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  grammar-school  course  is  a  pedagogical  question 
that  can  be  settled  by  trial,  provided  that  in  the  trial 
there  is  a  real  unification,  and  not  simply  a  mechanical 
mixing  or  sandwiching  of  the  subjects.  This  is  simply 
the  correlation  of  allied  subjects  zvitJihi  a  group,  but  the 
hitching  of  mathematics  to  history  or  to  natural  science 
is  another  matter. 

It  is  conceded  that  facts  and  even  a  group  of  facts 
in  one  coordinate  branch  may  be  used  in  a  lesson  in 

Facts  in  anothcr  branch,  especially  for  purposes  of 
Different      iHustratlou  or  for  disclosing  mutual  relations. 

Coordinate  '-' 

Groups.  A  teacher  may,  for  example,  use  the  trans- 
parency of  glass  to  illustrate  the  meaning  of  a  lucid 
style  in  speech  or  writing,  but  it  is  evident  that  this  is 
not  a  correlation,  much  less  a  unification  of  physics  and 
rhetoric  as  branches.  The  same  is  true  when  skill  in 
one  branch  is  used  as  an  aid  in  teaching  another,  as 
when  skill  in  drawing  is  utilized  in  teaching  geography. 
There   may    be   great   advantage   in    grouping   closely 


OTHER  METHODS    OF   TEACHING.  79 

related  facts  in  different  branches,  as  in  history  and 
geography.  But  these  feasible  "  cross  references  "  in 
instruction  should  not  be  magnified  as  the  unification  of 
the  branches.  They  are  incidental,  not  vital  features 
of  instruction,  and  in  no  true  sense  correlate  the  studies. 
It  may  be  added  that  these  interrelations  of  different 
branches  are  most  common  in  their  elements,  but  as 
the  course  advances  coordinate  studies  become  more 
and  more  separate,  each  increasingly  having  its  own 
development,  and,  as  a  consequence,  its  own  sequence. 

It  is  further  evident  that  the  unification  of  different 
subjects  falls  largely  wit/iin  the  details  of  actual  iiistnic- 
tion  and   is  the  work  of  the  living  teacher. 

Unification 

True  correlation,  not  to  say  unification,  is  in  Actual 
something  more  than  a  mechanical  mixing  instruction. 
of  subjects,  and  is  practicable  only  when  subjects  have 
close  interrelations.  The  union,  for  example,  of  nature 
lessons  and  literature  may  give  now  and  then  a  beauti- 
ful, even  striking,  lesson,  but  not  one  tenth  of  the  facts 
of  natural  science  can  be  hitched  to  a  poem.  The 
attempt  to  force  such  associations  in  teaching  results  in 
fantastic  and  even  ridiculous  combinations.  It  may 
even  be  questioned  whether  the  true  function  of  nature 
instruction  may  not  thus  be  seriously  subverted.^ 

It  is  seen  from  this  brief  survey  that  the  principle  of 
unification,  or,  if  preferred,  concentration,  is 

^  .  .  Most  Helpful 

most  readily  and  helpfully  applied  in  primary  in  Primary 
instruction  ;  and  that  its  most  promising  appli-  instruction, 
cations  are  in  teaching  allied  subjects  within  the  several 

^  "  Red  Riding  Hood  contains  some  very  false  teaching  if  it  is  to  be 
treated  as  science.  Bring  it  in  as  science  and  it  loses  its  own  peculiar  in- 
terest and  misleads  the  pupils  in  regard  to  the  facts  of  nature."  —  Professor 
Charles  H.  Judd,  New  York  University. 


8o  THE  ART  OF  TEACHIXG. 

coordinate  groups,  and  also  in  teaching  other  subjects 
that  have  closely  related  facts,  as  geography  and  his- 
tory, which  have  many  complementary  phases.  In 
these  several  directions  the  intelligent  application  of 
the  principle  may  give  valuable  results.  It  has,  how- 
ever, small  claims  to  be  considered  a  general  method 
of  teaching.  It  is  a  principle  to  be  utilized  rather  than 
a  method  to  be  followed. 

Special  Methods. 

It  is  common  to  designate  methods  or  ways  of  teach- 
ing by  some  characteristic  feature,  as  the  word  method 
Partial  ^^^^  the  sentcncc  method  in  reading,  the  ratio 
Methods,  method  and  the  measurement  method  in  arith- 
metic, the  diagram  method  in  grammar,  the  interlinear 
method  in  language,  the  ratio  method,  the  concert 
method,  the  individual  method,  the  manual  method,  the 
topical  method,  etc.  Several  of  these  special  methods 
have  been  exploited  as  if  they  determined  the  efficiency 
and  success  of  school  instruction.  There  is  a  strong 
tendency  among  teachers  to  make  a  hobby  of  minor 
methods  and  devices,  and  the  more  the  mind  becomes 
interested  in  a  special  device,  the  larger  the  device 
appears.  As  a  corrective  of  this  tendency  it  is  im- 
portant that  teachers  see  that  these  special  methods 
have  only  a  partial  function,  and  hence  a  very  limited 
application  and  utility  in  actual  teaching. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE    DRILL. 

It  is  shown  in  Chapter  IV.  that  one  of  the  two 
important  ends  to  be  obtained  in  the  teaching  process, 
called  the  drill,  is  the  training  of  power  and 
skill,  especially  skill  in  the  several  school 
arts ;  as  reading,  language,  number,  writing,  drawing, 
singing,  etc.  These  are  the  fundamental  arts  not  only 
of  the  school  but  also  of  civilization,  and  the  early 
acquisition  of  skill  therein  is  of  the  highest  value,  not 
only  as  a  necessary  element  of  school  training  but  in 
practical  life. 

In  Chapter  III.  the  principles  that  underlie  the  acquisi- 
tion of  skill  in  any  art  are  clearly  and  fully  stated.  It 
remains  to  apply  these  principles  to  the  con-  Acquisition 
duct  of  the  drill  when  skill  is  its  special  end.  of  skiu. 
In  this  study  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  power  and 
skill  are  trained  only  by  action  ;  that  every  act  of  the 
soul  increases  the  power  to  act,  and  leaves  a  tendency 
to  act  again  in  like  manner.  This  is  not  only  true  of 
psychical  activity,  but,  within  certain  limits,  it  holds  true 
.of  bodily  activity,  and  especially  of  the  activity  of  the 
senses  ;  as  the  eye,  the  ear,  the  touch,  etc.  What  is  true 
of  a  first  action  is  true  also  of  its  repetition.  Every 
repetition  of  an  act  increases  both  power  and  tendency, 
and  thus  through  repetition  an  act  may  "  repeat  itself"  ; 
that  is,  become  automatic  (p.  45). 

ART  OF  TEACHING  — 6  8l 


82  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  drill 
with  skill  as  its  end  is  repetition  or  practice.     It  is  its 

Repetition  Special  function  to  provide,  guide,  and  inspire 
and  Practice,  needed  practice.  Skill  in  reading  or  music 
cannot  be  acquired  by  simply  studying  the  principles 
of  these  arts.  Indeed,  a  knowledge  of  these  principles 
may  be  acquired  without  any  added  skill  in  either  art. 
The  chief  value  of  such  knowledge  is  as  a  means  of 
guiding  practice,  and  this,  as  previously  shown  (p.  49), 
appears  in  a  later  phase  of  art  training.  Knowledge 
divorced  from  practice  gives  no  skill  in  any  art. 

Another  principle  to  be  carefully  observed  in  conduct- 
ing a  drill  is  that  skill  in  any  art  is  trained  only  by  the 

Repetition  repetition  of  acts,  not  by  repeating  zvords. 
of  Acts.  This  follows  from  the  fact  that  every  power 
is  trained  by  its  own  activity,  and  not  by  the  activity  of 
another  power.  The  ability  to  act  in  a  given  direction 
is  trained  only  by  acting  in  that  direction.  Hence,  in 
conducting  a  drill  in  any  art  care  must  be  taken  to  secure 
a  repetitioji  of  acts. 

The  old-time  practice  of  teaching  number  combina- 
tions and  tables  by  drills  requiring  pupils  to  repeat  over 
Word        and  over  the  words,  flew  in  the  face  of  this 

Repetition,  principle.  The  words  were  repeated  as  sounds 
without  the  mind's  actually  seeing  the  number  relations 
expressed.  A  visitor  to  a  primary  school  in  one  of  our 
large  cities  witnessed  a  drill  on  the  number  seven  which 
he  thus  describes,  using  figures  to  save  space : 

"  The  pupil  at  the  head  of  tlie  class  rose  and  said  :  7 ;  6  and  i 
are  7  ;  i  and  6  are  7,  and  this  was  repeated  by  sixty  pupils  in  turn, 
each  rising.     The  drill  proceeded  : 

Head  pupil  :  7  ;  5  and  2  are  7  ;  2  and  5  are  7  —  repeated  in  turn 
by  all. 


THE  DRILL.  83 

Head  pupil  :   7  ;  4  and  3  are  7  ;  3  and  4  are  7  —  repeated  in   turn 

by  all. 
Head  pupil:  7;  one  6  in  7  and  i  over  —  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
Head  pupil  :  7  ;  one  5  in  7  and  2  over —  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
Head  pupil:  7  ;  one  4  in  7  and  3  over —  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
Head  pupil:  7;  two  ■^■s,  in  7  and  i  over  —  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
Head  pupil  :  7  ;  three  2's  in  7  and  i  over  —  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
Head  pupil  :  7  ;  seven  I's  in  7—  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
Head  pupil  :  7  is  7  times  i  —  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
Head  pupil  :  7  is  3  times  2  plus  i  —  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
Head  pupil  :  7  is  twice  3  plus  i  —  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
Head  pupil  :  7  is  once  4  plus  3  —  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
Head  pupil  :  7  is  once  5  plus  2  —  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
Head  pupil  :  7  is  once  6  plus  i —  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
Head  pupil  :  7  is  once  7  —  repeated  in  turn  by  all. 
And  the  number  seven  was  exhausted  ! " 

It  is  evident  that  the  result  of  this  exercise  would 
have  been  about  the  same  if  all  the  pupils  in  the  class, 
except  the  head  one,  had  been  parrots  with  the  gift  of 
imitating  sounds !  No  pupil,  except  the  one  at  the 
head,  was  obliged  to  see  a  number  relation  vocally  ex- 
pressed. The  drill,  if  desirable,  could  have  been  effec- 
tively conducted  in  one  third  of  the  time,  and  every 
pupil  obliged  to  see  each  number  relation. 

In  another  school  twenty  minutes  were  devoted  to 
finding  |  of  6,  |  of  9,  §  of  12,  and  |  of  15.  The  teacher 
found  f  of  6  and  the  process  was  repeated  in  Another 
turn  by  twenty  pupils.  A  pupil  then  found  Example. 
I  of  9,  another  |  of  12,  and  another  |  of  15,  and  in  each 
case  the  process  was  repeated  in  turn  by  all  the  pupils. 
How  easily  the  exercises  could  have  been  so  conducted 
as  to  necessitate  the  mental  solution  of  each  example  by 
all  the  pupils,  the  examples  also  including  ,f  of  18,  f  of 
24,  I  of  21,  I  of  30,  I  of  60,  etc.  In  such  a  drill  no 
pupil  should  be  permitted  to  repeat  after  another. 


84  THE  ART  OF   TEACHING. 

These  senseless  drills  are  given  as  illustrations  of  the 
sad  waste  of  time  in  our  schools  by  parrot  exercises  in 

Parrot  mere  word  repetition,  largely  by  mechanical 
Exercises,  imitation  with  no  corresponding  mental  activ- 
ity. There  is  also  a  like  waste  in  the  repetition  of  man- 
ual movements  by  mere  imitation,  as  in  the  arts  of  writing, 
drawing,  and  construction.  This  mechanical  repetition 
has  its  culmination  in  simultaneous  exercises,  all  the 
pupils  repeating  in  concert  the  words  of  the  leader,  as 
was  once  common  in  spelling,  reading,  and  number. 

It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  while  skill  in  the  several 
school  arts  is  acquired  by  practice  in  which  actions  are 

Guided  repeated,  it  must  be  guided  practice.  No  art 
Practice.  jg  learned  by  mere  practice,  mere  doing. 
Practice  to  be  fruitful  in  skill  must  be  the  realization  of 
ideals  in  the  mind.  In  singing,  for  example,  the  learner 
must  mentally  hear  the  tones  that  he  is  to  produce  with 
his  voice.  He  thus  puts  his  mind  and  his  will  into  vocal 
effort,  and  thus  comes  into  skill.  The  same  is  true  in 
the  manual  arts  of  writing,  drawing,  etc.  The  hand 
produces  or  realizes  forms  that  are  in  the  mind.  The 
vital  thing  in  directing  a  practice  drill  in  any  art  is  to 
occasion  in  the  minds  of  pupils  clear  ideals  of  zvhat  is  to 
be  produced.  These  inspiring  ideals  will  not  only  guide 
practice,  but  they  will  awaken  interest  and  thus  secure 
attention  and  effort  (p.  47). 

But  the  drill  has  also  for  its  end  the  making  of  knowl- 
edge clearer  and   thus  more   permanent  (p.    53),  and 

..    .  here  the  principles  above  stated  are  of  the 

Making  '  '■ 

Knowledge    highest  practlcal  importance    It  is  not  enough 

Clearer.       ^^  sccure  this  cud  that  pupils  repeat  in  words 

what  they  have  learned.    Word  repetition  does  not  add  to 

the  clearness  of  one's  knowledge.    What  is  needed  is  the 


THE  DRILL.  85 

reknowing  of  what  has  been  known,  and  this  with  the 
view  of  knowing  more  clearly  and  fully.  Few  objects 
are  fully  known  on  first  presentation.  It  takes,  for  ex- 
ample, more  than  one  e.xercise  to  teach  a  cube.  In  the 
first  observations  attention  is  directed  to  the  more  prom- 
inent features  or  qualities,  as  the  number,  form,  equal- 
ity, etc.,  of  its  faces  ;  but  in  the  second  study  attention  is 
more  distributed,  new  facts  are  learned,  and  relations 
more  clearly  seen.  The  same  is  true  of  lessons  on  plants 
and  animals,  though  in  all  strictly  observation  lessons, 
the  repeating  of  knowing  acts  is  incidental  and  largely 
unconscious.  "The  second  time,"  says  Hoffding,  "ev- 
erything is  taken  in  more  clearly  and  distinctly,  without 
it  being  necessary  to  think  of  the  first  time." 

The  drill  as  a  means  of  making  knowledge  clearer 
has  most  value  in  teaching  knowledge  that  is  reached 
by  analysis,  or  by  induction  or  other  form  of  Maxim  of 
generalization.  To  attain  the  desired  end  thejesuUs. 
here  the  process  of  knowing  must  be  repeated,  and  each 
repetition,  within  limits,  makes  the  fact  or  principle 
clearer.  It  is  this  principle  that  gave  vital  meaning  to 
the  historic  maxim  of  the  Jesuits,  to  yN\X\Repetitio  mater 
studionim.  Repetition  is  the  mother  of  learning  only 
when  the  acts  of  learning  are  repeated.  The  mere 
repetition  of  words,  so  long  the  weakness  of  the  old- 
time  schools,  was  much  better  fitted  by  the  maxim, 
Repetitio  mater  stitpidarum. 

No  mistake  in  teaching  has  been  more  serious  than 
the  assumption  that  knowledge  is  taught  by  the  iteration 
and  reiteration  of  words.  This  was  the  fatal  jhe  Lancas- 
error  of  what  is  known  as  the  Lancaster  system  *"  system, 
of  instruction,  which  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  occasioned  so  great  a  sensation  in  England,  and 


86  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

subsequently  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  In  this 
system,  designated  as  "  monitorial  and  mutual  instruc- 
tion," the  lessons  were  taught  orally  by  the  master  of 
the  school,  with  responses  by  all  the  pupils  in  concert, 
and  then  these  were  fixed  in  the  memory  by  repetition 
under  monitors,  the  pupils  being  divided  into  groups 
for  the  purpose.  The  master  taught  the  lessons,  and 
the  monitors,  themselves  pupils,  heard  the  lessons  re- 
peated. The  pupils  thus  taught  made  apparently  very 
rapid  progress,  and  the  most  extravagant  claims  for  the  sys- 
tem were  made  by  its  advocates.  In  a  letter  to  Governor 
De  Witt  Clinton  in  1826,  Mr.  James  Wadsworth  said : 

"  Arkwright's  discovery  and  the  subsequent  improvement  are  not 
more  important  to  the  manufacture  of  cotton  than  the  Lancaster  system 
to  an  infinitely  more  important  object,  the  education  of  our  youth." 

But  the  sanguine  advocates  of  the  "  new  system " 
were  doomed  to  disappointment.  It  was  found  by  trial 
Failure  of  f^at  many  of  the  pupils  could  not  repeat 
the  System,  separately  what  they  recited  with  such  vocal 
energy  in  chorus ;  and  that  the  ideas,  which  they  asso- 
ciated with  the  sounds  repeated,  were  often  ridiculous 
in  the  extreme.^  The  system  was  short  lived  wherever 
introduced,  especially  the  monitorial  feature,  but  its  stu- 
pid concert  drills  continued  in  American  schools  as  a 
persistent  evil  for  fifty  years.  It  would  afford  the 
writer  special  satisfaction  to  be  able  to  express  the 
belief  that  this  evil  practice  has  wholly  disappeared  from 
our  schools. 

^  There  has  been  nothing  more  marked  or  discouraging  in  the  history 
of  school  progress  than  the  readiness  of  teachers  and  school  patrons  to 
accept  pretentious  new  "methods"  and  "systems"  of  teaching  as  revela- 
tions, pregnant  with  school  reform.  The  Lancaster  system  is  an  illustra- 
tion.    Even  eminent  educators  were  attracted  and  deceived  by  it. 


THE  DRILL.  87 

Abuses  of  the  Drill. 

The  drill  is  liable  to  obvious  abuses  in  school  training. 
One  of  these  abuses,  more  properly,  perhaps,  misuses, 
is  the  aimless  drill,  a  sort  of  crank-turning  Aimless 
without  definite  aim  or  purpose.  In  no  teach-  dhiis. 
ing  process  does  the  teacher  need  clearer  aims  than  in 
the  drill.  It  is  not  enough  to  have  in  mind  a  general 
result  to  be  attained,  much  less  to  be  guided  by  a  vague 
and  indefinite  purpose.  The  drill  must  be  guided  by 
clear  and  definite  results  as  ends.  If,  for  example,  the 
purpose  of  a  particular  drill  is  to  train  vocal  power,  it 
must  aim  at  some  special  vocal  quality ;  if  to  train  skill 
in  number,  it  must  aim  at  number  skill  in  some  special 
process.  The  more  definite  and  immediate  the  aim  of 
the  drill,  the  higher  will  be  the  resulting  skill.  The 
result  attained  in  the  drill  is  the  evidence  and  test  of  its 
success. 

Another  common  abuse  of  the  drill  is  its  continuance 
after  the  desired  results  have  been  attained.  This  may 
be  characterized  as  the  excessive  drill.  In  Excessive 
the  practice  of  some  teachers  the  drill  is  a  Orius. 
machine  to  run  according  to  the  time-table,  a  device 
for  marking  time  when  there  is  nothing  else  to  do. 
Nothing  in  school  work  can  exceed  the  uselessness  of 
some  of  the  so-called  drills  to  which  pupils  are  often  sub- 
jected. The  greater  part  of  a  spelling  drill  may  be 
spent  on  words  which  no  pupil  has  misspelled  or  can 
misspell  without  a  special  effort.  Pupils  are  required 
to  drone  over  reading  lessons  which  they  know  by  heart, 
and  to  reread  them  when  there  is  not  the  least  gain 
either  in  grasp  of  thought  or  in  its  vocal  expression. 
Pupils  waste  time   in  mechanically  writing  page  after 


8S  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

page,  the  writing  actually  growing  worse  from  the  top 
to  the  bottom  of  every  page.  They  arc  required  to 
solve  problems  over  and  over,  which  they  first  solved 
at  a  glance.  Young  pupils  may  be  kept  combining  and 
separating  groups  of  objects  after  they  can  readily  add 
and  subtract  the  corresponding  concrete  numbers,  and 
even  the  abstract  numbers ;  they  may  be  kept  inspecting 
blocks  to  determine  ratio  which  they  have  learned  by 
heart.  Drills  with  blocks  may  be  made  as  useless  and 
senseless  as  drills  with  match  sticks,  or  even  in  counting 
by  naming  the  successive  numbers,  and  this  can  cer- 
tainly be  made  sufficiently  stupid  to  illustrate  what  is 
possible  in  this  direction.  The  waste  of  time  in  useless 
and  excessive  drills  is  often  a  serious  evil  in  school  work. 
The  saving  of  the  time  thus  wasted  would  afford  time 
needed  for  important  instruction  now  neglected.  The 
right  use  of  the  drill  requires  preparation,  watchfulness, 
judgment,  and  forethought. 

The  abuses  of  the  drill  culminate  in  simultaneous  or 

concert  repetition.     Happily  this  form  of  abuse  is  not  so 

Concert      commou  in  American  schools  as  it  was  thirty 

Drills.  years  ago.  Concert  exercises  have  now  a 
small  place  in  our  best  schools,  and  even  in  exercises 
in  singing  provision  is  made  for  individual  practice  and 
testing.  In  a  few  cities  the  use  of  the  concert  drill,  ex- 
cept in  singing,  has  been  forbidden  by  the  school  au- 
thorities ;  but  the  increasing  disuse  of  concert  drills  has 
been  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  teachers,  as  a  class,  are 
seeing  more  clearly  the  true  function  of  the  drill,  and 
the  failure  of  concert  repetition  to  give  desired  results. 
It  certainly  ought  to  be  possible  to  correct  the  misuse  of 
the  concert  drill  without  absolutely  forbidding  its  use. 
It  is  true  that  it  has  a  comparatively  small  place  in 


THE  DRILL.  89 

school  work,  and  is  easily  liable  to  overuse,  but  it  may 
have  important  value  when  used  by  a  wise  and  skillful 
teacher.  This  is  true  not  only  in  drills  in  singing,  but 
also  occasionally  in  reading,  and,  for  special  purposes, 
in  other  exercises. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  TEST. 

The  purpose  of  the  test  as  a  teaching  process  is  to 

disclose  the  results  of  instruction,  drill  or  practice,  and 

study.     As  stated  in  a  previous  chapter,  it  is 

Its  Function.  ,   . 

the  eye  of  teaching.  1  he  teacher  needs  to 
know  as  he  proceeds  the  pupil's  attainments,  and  in  the 
absence  of  such  knowledge  no  skillful  teaching  is  pos- 
sible. At  every  step  in  the  teaching  process  the  results 
of  the  preceding  steps  must  be  known,  the  clearer  the 
better.  Indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  simplest 
lesson  can  be  skillfully  given  without  a  knowledge  of 
results  as  the  exercise  proceeds.  In  disclosing  results, 
the  test  guides  and  energizes  the  process,  and  is  other- 
wise an  essential  factor  in  teaching. 

But  concurrent  and  incidental  testing  of  results  is  not 
sufficient.  It  is  also  necessary  to  test  results  when  teach- 
The  Formal    i^ig  proccsscs  are  completed,  the  results  not 

Test.  only  of  single  lessons  but  also  of  series  of 
lessons.  This  makes  a  place  for  the  formal  test  exer- 
cise in  school  training,  —  an  exercise  that  surveys  the 
ground  covered,  discloses  unsatisfactory  results,  and 
thus  suggests  needed  supplementary  instruction  and 
reviews.  These  searching  test  exercises  are  very  im- 
portant. As  a  rule  teachers  overestimate  their  pupils' 
attainments,  and  pupils  as  a  class  know  much  less  than 
they  think   they  know.     The  searching  test  is  an  eye 

90 


THE    TEST.  91 

opener.  It  undeceives  teacher  and  pupils  ;  may,  indeed, 
take  the  conceit  out  of  them,  and  in  this  there  is  often 
great  gain.  The  test  is  a  needed  help  in  both  teaching 
and  learning. 

The  results  of  teaching  and  study  that  need  to  be 
tested  are  knowledge ,  power,  and  skill  {\i.  26),  and  each 
of  these  results  is  tested  by  means  peculiar 

■^  '■  Knowledge 

to  itself.  Knowledge  is  chiefly  disclosed  by  tested  by 
its  expression,  but  this  method  of  testing  ^''P'^^^^'""- 
what  one  knows  is  not  so  certain  as  it  seems.  The 
memoriter  expression  of  knowledge  is  uncertain  evi- 
dence that  pupils  know  what  they  verbally  express. 
Pupils  may  repeat  accurately  statements  of  facts  and 
have  no  knowledge  of  the  facts.  Hence  in  testing 
knowledge  by  its  expression  it  is  necessary  to  secure 
such  expression  as  makes  evident  the  fact  that  the  pupil 
knows  what  he  says,  not  always  an  easy  task.  The 
essential  thing  is  to  put  tests  in  such  a  way  that  they 
cannot  be  met  by  repeating  memorized  language.  The 
evident  exception  here  is  in  testing  the  pupil's  abihty 
to  reproduce  certain  statements  accurately,  the  testing 
of  verbal  memory,  rather  than  knowledge,  and  this  is 
sometimes  important. 

Knowledge  may  also  be  tested  by  its  application  ornse, 
direct  or  indirect.  This  is  sometimes  a  more  satisfactory 
test  than  expression,  but  its  special  value  is  Application 
the  evidence  it  furnishes  that  what  is  ex-  °^  "^^ 
pressed  is  understood,  a  corroborative  test.  It  is,  how- 
ever, not  possible  to  apply  this  test  to  all  teaching  results, 
but  it  may  be  often  used  in  the  art  studies  and  also  in 
other  branches,  especially  in  the  physical  sciences.  A 
pupil's  knowledge  of  climate,  for  example,  may  be  effi- 
ciently  tested    by  the  study  of  a  continent  or  even   a 


92  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

country.  The  writer  once  conducted  such  a  test,  using 
South  America  for  the  purpose,  and  the  result  was  most 
satisfactory  as  evidence  of  the  pupils'  elementary  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  of  climate.  The  teacher  should  be 
watchful  for  opportunities  to  use  the  results  of  training. 
Power  is  tested  by  its  exercise  and  this  is  true  what- 
ever the  power  and  whatever  the  direction  of  its  activity. 
The  power  to  see  the  relations  of  numbers  in 

Power  ^ 

tested  by  a  problem  is  tested  by  its  solution  since  this 
Exercise.  Jnvolves  the  seeing  of  these  relations ;  and, 
for  a  like  reason,  the  power  to  see  the  relations  of  the 
words  in  an  English  sentence  is  tested  by  its  analysis, 
which  involves  thought  analysis.  Years  ago  the  princi- 
pal of  a  Cleveland  grammar  school,  who  prided  himself 
on  his  ability  to  teach  English  grammar,  said  at  the 
close  of  an  examination  which  tested  the  thought  power 
of  his  pupils,  "  I  can  teach  English  grammar,  but  I  can- 
not give  pupils  brains  !  "  In  all  tests  of  formal  knowl- 
edge his  classes  stood  high,  but  in  the  analysis  of 
sentences  requiring  considerable  thought  power,  they 
disappointed  their  teacher.^  The  teaching  of  technical 
grammar  to  young  pupils  involves  the  gift  of  thought,  if 
not  of  "brains."  It  certainly  requires  long  and  pro- 
gressive   training    in    thought   analysis   to  give   young 

1  Those  who  advocate  the  early  teaching  of  technical  grammar  over- 
look the  fact  that  the  relations  of  words  in  an  English  sentence  are  not 
determined  by  word  forms,  but  largely  by  the  analysis  of  the  thought,  a 
much  more  difficult  thing.  In  inflected  languages,  the  relations  of  the 
words  in  a  sentence  are  chiefly  indicated  by  Ike  forms  of  the  words.  This 
explains  the  ability  of  French  or  Italian  children  to  become  proficient  in 
grammar  at  a  much  earlier  age  than  English  or  American  children.  The 
English  language  has  comparatively  few  grammatical  forms,  and  hence 
English  grammar  is  not  a  form  study.  The  grammar  of  an  inflected  lan- 
guage is  a  form  study  and  largely  objective. 


I 


THE    TEST.  93 

pupils  the  power  to  see  the  relation  of  words  in  English 
sentences,  except  the  simplest,  and  for  the  reason  that 
the  discerning  of  these  word  relations  is  not  a  form  or 
eye  matter  but  a  thought  process. 

Skill  is  tested  by  doing  or  action,  and  usually  the 
doing  must  be  observed  to  determine  the  degree  of  skill. 
The  pupil's  skill  in  reading  is  shown  by  read- 
ing ;  his  skill  in  singing  by  singing ;  his  skill  ^b""  DoTn^"^ 
in  drawing  by  drawing,  etc.  It  is  true  that  in 
the  graphic  arts,  as  writing  and  drawing,  one's  skill  may 
be  judged  in  part  from  specimens,  but  only  in  part.  An 
important  element  in  skill  is  time.  It  is  not  possible  to 
judge  satisfactorily  of  the  skill  of  two  penmen  by  speci- 
mens of  their  writing.  One  may  have  spent  an  hour  on 
his  specimen  ;  the  other  only  ten  minutes.  A  pupil  who 
can  write  ten  lines  beautifully  in  five  minutes  has  cer- 
tainly higher  skill  than  one  who,  to  write  ten  lines 
equally  well,  requires  twenty  minutes.  Indeed,  many 
of  the  specimens  shown  in  school  exhibits  are  not 
specimens  of  writing  but  of  ivord  drazving.  The  same 
is  true  of  specimens  of  drawing,  though  perhaps  in  less 
degree.  In  order  to  judge  of  the  actual  skill  of  pupils 
in  drawing,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  time  spent  on 
the  final  specimen  and  also  the  time  spent  in  practicing 
upon  it  in  preparation,  the  assistance  received,  etc. 
When  the  manner  in  which  drawing  exhibits  were  pre- 
pared is  not  known,  but  little  value  can  be  attached  to 
them  as  evidence  of  the  comparative  skill  of  pupils  or 
schools.  Many  exhibits  are  practically  worthless  as  a 
means  of  comparing  school  work. 

Inasmuch  as  the  training  of  power  and  skill  is  a 
vital  function  of  teaching,  it  follows  that  the  search 
for  resulting  power  and  skill  is  a  most  important  func- 


94  THE  ART  OF   TEACHING. 

tion  of  the  art  of  testing.     It  is  just  here  that  much  of 
the  testing  in  our    schools    is  weak,  not  so 

Testing  <^  ' 

Power  and    weak   as    formerly,   but   still   unsatisfactory. 
Skill.        Yj^^  tests    even    now    used    largely  call   for 
knowledge,  this  being  specially  true  of  written  tests. 

The  writer  recently  examined  a  written  test  in  English 
in  a  large  western  city,  a  test  prepared  by  the  super- 
intendent and  submitted  to  all  the  pupils  in  a 

Example.  .  i  r      i  i         i  "t" 

given  grade  of  the  schools.  Twenty  of  the 
twenty-five  questions  were  tests  of  formal  knowledge  or, 
more  properly,  of  formal  statements  of  knowledge  com- 
mitted to  memory.  Five  of  the  questions  tested  power 
or  skill,  but  only  two  had  special  merit,  and  this  in  a 
branch  in  which  skill  is  the  important  end  sought.  It  is 
believed  that  three  fifths  of  the  written  tests  still  used  in 
American  schools  test  knowledge,  often  mere  memoriter 
knowledge,  —  what  Mr.  Quick,  of  England,  calls  "  ex- 
amination knowledge " ;  that  is,  knowledge  carefully 
formulated  and  put  in  the  memory  ready  for  delivery 
on  examination  day  ! 

The  test  exerts  a  positive  influence  on  the  other 
teaching  processes.  If  the  tests  used  in  teaching  em- 
influence  of    phasizc  knowledge,  training  will  be  slighted 

Tests.  aj^fj  cramming  encouraged,  and  this  will  be 
specially  true  when  tests  are  satisfied  by  the  repetition  of 
language  learned  by  heart.  If  the  tests  are  narrow  and 
technical,  the  instruction  will  be  narrow  and  technical ; 
if  the  tests  run  to  figures,  the  instruction  will  run  to 
figures  ;  if  the  tests  demand  details,  they  may  emphasize 
and  make  imperative  all  "  the  lumber  of  the  text-books." 

What  is  true  of  the  influence  of  the  test  on  teaching  is 
true,  in  a  higher  degree,  of  its  influence  on  the  pupils' 
work,  particularly  on  book  study.      If  the  tests  touch 


THE    TEST.  95 

only  the  memory,  the  pupils  will  memorize  ;  if  the  tests 
touch  the  understanding,  pupils  will  strive  to  understand 
the  subjects  studied ;  if  the  tests  are  super-      .  „ 

•*  _  ^_  Influence 

ficial,    the    pupils'   study  will   be  superficial,     on  Pupiis* 
It  is,  indeed,  not  too  much  to  say  that  teach-        '^vork. 
ing  and  study  are  never  much  wider  or  better  than  tJie 
tests  by  which   they  are  vieasiired.      It   is  certain  that 
the   work   of    a    school    never   rises    much   above   the 
teacher's  tests. 

Modes  of  Testing. 

We  have  learned  that  knowledge  may  be  tested  by 
its  expression  and  by  its  application,  but  it  remains  to 
consider  the  manner  in  which  tests  shall  be  put  before 
the  pupil. 

Tests  of  knowledge  may  be  presented  to  the  pupil  in 
two  different  ways,  in  the  form  of  questions  and  in  the 
form  of  topics.  The  first  is  known  as  the  Testing 
catechetic  or  question  method,  and  the  second  Methods. 
as  the  topic  method.  Questions  as  tests  may  be  more 
definite,  and  they  usually  require  a  briefer  response  than 
topics.^  A  topic  may  indicate  only  the  general  character 
of  the  knowledge  sought,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  more  general 
the  topic,  the  less  definite  and  searching  it  is  as  a  test. 

The  chief  merit  of  the  question  method  of  testing 
knowledge  is  its  thoroughness,  but  this  result  necessarily 
depends  on  the  character  of  the  questions.  Advantages 
Superficial  questions  may  be  met  by  super-    of  Question 

r    •    ^  1  1  ^  .  •  Method. 

ncial  answers,  but,  on  the  contrary,  questions 
may  call  for  knowledge  that  is  fundamental.     There  is 
no  other  test  of  knowledge  so  searching  and  thorough 
as  a  series  of  well-directed  questions. 

^  See  "  Elements  of  Pedagogy,"  pp.  177-182. 


96  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

The  question  mode  of  testing  permits  a  systematic 
{unfolding  of  the  subject,  an  important  advantage.      It 

Another  givcs  the  teacher  the  control  of  the  order  of 
Advantage,  ^j^g  topics  and  also  of  the  included  facts,  and 
thus  due  prominence  can  readily  be  given  to  the  more 
fundamental  and  vital.  Such  a  systematic  review  of  a 
subject  greatly  clarifies  the  pupil's  knowledge. 

While  this  is  true  in  the  recitation,  the  question  mode 
of  testing  fails  to  secure  systematic  thought  in  study. 
This  defect  is  greatest  when  the  pupil's  study  consists 
in  attaching  ready-made  answers  to  questions  in  a  book, 
a  process  that  may  be  made  about  as  mechanical  as 
the  fitting  of  pegs  to  holes  of  different  sizes.  A  pupil 
may  thus  learn  the  answers  to  scores  of  questions  con- 
cerning a  given  country  without  forming  a  conception 
of  it.     His  knowledge  is  in  fragments. 

Another  advantage  of  the  question  mode  of  testing 
is  the  opportunity  which  it  affords  for  incidental  instntc- 

Third  tion.  Whcu  Searching  questions  show  that 
Advantage,  explanation  or  illustration  is  needed,  the  same 
can  be  given  with  comparatively  little  sacrifice  of  testing 
efficiency.  The  pupils  are  in  a  favorable  condition  to 
receive  such  instruction,  and  it  may  usually  be  given  in 
few  words.  The  one  result  to  be  carefully  avoided 
in  a  recitation  is  the  dissipation  of  the  test  by  instruction. 
It  is  easy  for  a  teacher  to  subordinate  testing  to  mere 
talking,  the  temptations  to  such  a  waste  of  time  being 
abundant. 

To  secure  these  advantages,  the  questions  used  as 

tests  should  be  clear,  concise,  and  definite.       The    first 

Character  of  rcquisitc  iu  auswcring  a  question  is  its  clear 

Questions,     comprehension,  and  hence  the  importance  of 

its  being  stated  clearly  and  concisely.     An  ambiguous 


THE    TES7\  97 

question  occasions  hesitancy  and  confusion,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  a  wordy  question,  while  an  indefinite 
question  invites  a  loose  and  pointless  answer.  As  a 
rule,  a  question  should  be  as  concise  and  definite  as  the 
answer  it  solicits. 

All  questions  that  suggest  the  answer,  technically 
called  "leading  questions,"  are  worthless  as  tests,  and 
should  be  carefully  avoided.       The  same  is 

■^  Questions 

true  of  questions  that  can  be  answered  by  worthless 
yes  or  fio.  Whatever  may  be  the  pupil's  ^^  Tests, 
ignorance,  he  is  more  likely  to  answer  such  questions 
correctly  than  incorrectly.  The  manner  in  which  the 
question  is  asked,  the  suggestive  look  of  teacher  or 
fellow  pupil,  unconscious  it  may  be,  or  some  other  hint, 
may  make  correct  guessing  quite  easy.  It  usually  takes 
a  very  dull  pupil  to  miss  a  "  yes-or-no  "  question.  __The 
practice  of  helping  pupils  in  recitations  by  leading  ques- 
tions'or  otherwise  is  pernicious.  It  deceives  the  pupil 
and  fosters  bad  habits  of  study. 

While  questions  may  be  excellent  tests  of  knowledge, 
they  are  not  so  satisfactory  as  tests  of  expression.  This 
weakness  may  be  partly  overcome  by  requir-  Tests  of 
ing  pupils  to  give  full  and  complete  answers.  Expression, 
answers  that  clearly  express  the  thought ;  but  even 
this  may  fail  to  test  the  pupil's  power  to  express  prop- 
erly several  consecutive  thoughts.  Many  of  the  answers 
accepted  in  schools,  even  in  recitations,  consist  of 
a  single  word  or  two  or  more  words  not  forming  a 
sentence,  —  answers  admissible,  it  may  be,  in  drills, 
or  in  rapid  reviews,  but  not  in  a  formal  test  exercise. 
Here,  at  least,  pupils  should  be  held  to  the  complete 
and  accurate  expression  of  their  knowledge.  It  is 
certainly  not  a  good  practice  for  teachers  to  use  more 

ART  OF  TEACHING —  7 


98  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

words  in  asking  questions  than  pupils  use  in  answer- 
ing them. 

The  most  obvious  merit  of  the  topic  mode  of  testing 
is  its  value  as  a  test  of  expirssion,  omitting  here  any 

Topic        consideration  of  its  great  merit  as  a  training 

Method.  jri  expression.  In  reciting  a  topic  the  i)upil 
is  obliged  to  tell  what  he  knows  in  successive  sentences, 
and  this  is  obviously  a  much  better  test  of  his  power  of 
expression  than  the  giving  of  brief  answers  to  specific 
questions. 

The  meeting  of  the  topic  test  of  expression  also  neces- 
sitates systematic  thought  in  study.  The  pupil  is  obliged 
Training  in  fo  arrange  the  facts  under  the  several  assigned 
Thought,  topics  in  some  definite  order.  More  advanced 
pupils  may  be  required  in  study  to  make  a  definite  analy- 
sis of  the  several  general  divisions  of  a  subject  and  to 
follow  these  analyses  in  reciting.  This  affords  an  excel- 
lent training  both  in  thinking  and  expression.  It  is  not 
enough  for  the  pupil  to  study  knowledge  as  classified  by 
another  mind.  As  he  advances  in  the  course  the  work 
of  classifying  and  arranging  his  knowledge  should  be 
done  increasingly  by  himself ;  and,  to  this  end,  the 
recitation  must  call  for  such  study. 

A  comparison  of  these  two  ways  of  testing  pupils 
shows  that  they  supplement  each  other,  one  being  weak 
where  the  other  is  strong,  and  vice  versa.  The  question 
method  is  strong  as  a  searching  test  of  knowledge,  and 
this  is  the  weak  feature  of  the  topic  method,  as  often 
used.  The  question  method  is  comparatively  weak  as 
a  test  of  expression,  and  the  topic  method  is  strong  in 
this  direction.  Testing  by  questions  permits  incidental 
instruction,  and  testing  by  topics  affords  small  oppor- 
tunity for  such  instruction.     These  and  other  contrasts 


THE    TEST.  99 

show  that  the  best  results  may  be  secured  by  the  imuni 
of  the  two  methods  in  a  practical  manner.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  permitting  pupils  to  recite,  as  union  of 
well  as  study,  mainly  by  topics,  and  following  Methods. 
the  recital  of  topics  by  questions  or,  in  more  advanced 
classes,  interjecting  questions.  This  may  be  readily 
done  even  in  such  a  study  as  geometry.  When  a 
pupil  in  reciting  a  topic  fails  to  show  satisfactory 
knowledge,  he  should  be  plied  with  searching  questions. 
This  requires  the  teacher  to  be  on  the  alert  for  fit 
occasions  thus  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  topic 
test.  In  primary  classes  questions  are  generally  used 
both  for  instruction  and  testing,  and  even  in  sub- 
grammar  grades,  especially  in  lower  classes,  the  topic 
method  has  its  chief  use  in  reviews. 

Since  power  and  skill  are  largely  tested  by  action  or 
doing  (p.  92),  these  tests  are  presented  to  the  pupil  in 
the  form  of  directions.  Thus  :  "  Solve  prob-  Directions 
lem  15";  "Analyze  the  sentence  'To  err  as  Tests. 
is  human'";  ."Draw  the  vase  on  the  table";  "Sing 
the  measures  of  music  on  the  board,"  etc.  This,  as 
must  be  readily  seen,  is  a  form  of  topic  test.  The 
thing  to  be  done  is  put  before  the  pupils  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  indicate  clearly  the  work  or  task  assigned. 
The  same  form  may  be  used  in  testing  certain  kinds  of 
knowledge. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  testing  is  a  difficult  art,  whatever 
the  method  employed.  The  art  of  asking  questions 
requires  a  clear  and  systematic  knowledge  of  Testing  a 
a  subject,  a  ready  command  of  good  English,  Difficult  Art. 
and  a  distinct  and  intelligent  aim.  There  has  never 
been  a  much  more  stupid  practice  than  "  the  asking  of 
questions  from  the  book,"   now  happily  disappearing. 


lOO  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

The  author's  questions  may  be  models  in  form  and  ar- 
rangement, but  their  use  degrades  the  teacher  to  a  mere 
machine  and  reduces  the  recitation  to  a  mechanical  and 
lifeless  routine.  The  only  proper  use  of  such  ques- 
tions is  in  preparing  for  the  recitation  ;  by  the  teacher 
as  a  means  of  increasing  his  skill  as  questioner,  and  by 
the  pupil  in  testing  his  knowledge,  especially  in  general 
reviews.  The  skillful  use  of  the  topic  method  requires 
a  clear  headed,  thorough  teacher.  In  the  hands  of  a 
superficial  teacher  the  recitation  degenerates  into  mere 
talking  about  subjects,  the  pupils  often  failing  to  state 
what  is  most  essential  to  be  known,  giving  instead  com- 
paratively unimportant  details.  Such  recitations  are 
exceedingly  deceptive  as  tests,  as  well  as  destructive  of 
right  habits  of  study.  The  pupil  needs  to  learn  that 
talking  at  topics  is  not  reciting  topics. 

It  requires  no  small  degree  of  skill  to  conduct  suc- 
cessfully an  oral  test,  an  eye-to-eye  and  mind-to-mind 
The  Oral      scarch  for  desired  results.     The  difficulty  of 

'^^^*-  such  a  test  is  greatly  increased  when  pupils 
recite  in  large  classes.  This  has  doubtless  facilitated 
the  adoption  of  the  written  test,  now  so  widely  used, 
often  without  seeing  its  limitations,  especially  as  a  test 
of  power  and  skill. 

But  a  more  serious  mistake  has  been  made  in  the  use 
of  the  concert  or  chorus  method  of  testing  pupils  in 
The  Concert    classcs.     This  was  the  great  error  of  Joseph 

"^"^  Lancaster  and  the  advocates  of  his  system. 
It  was  taken  for  granted  that  what  pupils  could  recite 
together  in  concert  they  knew  and  could  tell  indi- 
vidually. The  intelligent  application  of  the  individual 
test  exploded  the  system.  It  was  found  that  pupils 
were    reciting   in    concert   with    one   voice    what    they 


THE    TEST.  10 1 

could  not  tell  separately  and  of  which  they  had  often 
no  real  knowledge.  The  writer  once  witnessed  the 
testing  of  three  hundred  pupils  as  to  their  ability  to 
sing  a  certain  grade  of  music  at  sight.     They 

,  .   ,  1         .         .  ,  .  Example. 

sang  in  chorus  without  hesitation  three  pieces 
of  music  which  they  had  never  seen  before,  and  the  ex- 
aminer marked  the  class  "  perfect."  It  was,  however, 
ascertained  by  proper  testing  that  not  more  than  one 
pupil  in  five  could  sing  the  same  pieces  alone.  The 
chorus  singing  had  really  been  led  by  a  few  voices,  and 
this  is  true  of  much  concert  reciting.  Pupils  in  Sabbath 
schools  are  still  reciting  in  concert  the  catechism  and 
selections  from  the  Scriptures  ;  and  this,  not  as  a  means 
of  learning  what  is  recited,  but  to  show  that  it  has  been 
learned. 

These  examples  ought  to  suffice  to  show  the  mislead- 
ing character  of  concert  testing.  It  seems  strange  that 
such  a  method  of  testing  should  ever  have  been  used  by 
intelligent  teachers,  but  its  continued  use  after  years  of 
failure  is  still  stranger.  The  persistence  of  error  in  teach- 
ing seems  to  be  an  approach  to  the  persistence  of  force 
in  nature. 

All  that  has  been  said  above  emphasizes  the  impor- 
tance of  a  most  careful  study  and  mastery  of  the  art 
of  testing..  What  has  been  learned  of  its  function  and 
methods  prepares  the  way  for  an  inteUigent  study  of  its 
use  in  testing  pupils  in  classes,  especially  the  use  of  the 
oral  test.  This  will  be  more  fully  considered  in  another 
chapter. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

ORAL    INSTRUCTION. 

There  is  an  increasing  amount  of  knowledge  in  school 
courses  that  must  be  taught  by  the  living  teacher,  with- 
orai  out  a  text-book  in  the  hands  of  pupils.  This 
Lessons.  jg  ^j-yg  not  ouly  of  all  knowledge  that  must  be 
taught  objectively  (p.  6i),  but  also  of  those  subjects 
that  find  a  place  in  the  course  before  pupils  have  the 
ability  to  acquire  such  knowledge  from  books.  These 
subjects,  if  learned  by  young  pupils,  must  be  taught 
orally.  The  demand  for  this  oral  instruction  is  in- 
creasing from  year  to  year,  especially  in  elementary 
schools ;  and  it  is  vitally  important  that  teachers 
become  skillful  m  such  instruction.  Oral  teaching  is 
a  difficult  art,  an  art  that  requires  most  careful 
study. 

It  is  important  to  note  here  that  there  are  many 
exercises  in  the  modern  elementary  school,  especially 
in  primary  classes,  that  are  not  instruction 
instruction  lu  the  scusc  in  which  the  term  is  herein 
Exercises  j^jged.  Their  guiding  end  is  not  knowledge, 
or  power  related  to  knowledge,  or  even  skill  in  any 
school  art.  Their  aim,  so  far  as  they  have  a  con- 
scious aim,  is  to  give  bodily  relief,  to  afford  pleasure, 
even  amusement,  to  make  impressions  upon    the    sen- 


ORAL   INSTRUCTION.  IO3 

sibility,  to  awaken  feeling,  to  quicken  the  moral  sense, 
to  cultivate  aesthetic  taste,  to  stimulate  the  imagination, 
etc.  The  value  of  these  exercises  is  freely  conceded, 
since,  in  the  training  of  the  young,  moral,  aesthetic,  and 
physical  development  is  quite  as  important  as  intel- 
lectual development. 

But  these  exercises,  though  attractive  and  useful, 
are  not  instruction.  They  fall  in  the  teaching  process 
only  so  far  as  they  result  in  knowledge  or   in     ^ 

-'  .  Extent  of 

such  intellectual  feelings  as  interest,  curiosity,  such  Exer- 
wonder,  etc.,  thus  whetting  the  mind's  appetite  "^'^^^ 
for  knowledge.  If  a  competent  observer  should  seriously 
undertake  the  task  of  ascertaining  the  results  of  many 
of  the  exercises  in  primary  schools,  he  would  be  surprised 
at  their  small  contribution  to  the  pupil's  real  knowledge 
or  to  his  power  to  acquire  such  knowledge.  He  would 
find  many  exercises  that  result  only  in  impressions,  often 
in  mere  sensations.  This  is  specially  true  of  those  myths, 
fairy  tales,  wonder  stories,  etc.,  that  appeal  to  the  sensi- 
bility and  the  imagination,  but  have  little  or  no  basis  in 
reality  as  known  by  children. 

The  question  thus  raised  does  not  relate  to  the  value 
of  these  exercises  in  school  training,  and  it  is  certainly 
not  a  question  of  their  comparative  value,  instruction 
It  is  simply  a  discrimination  of  school  exer-  Exercises, 
cises  that  differ  in  their  aim  and  method,  and  this  with 
the  view  of  limiting  the  present  study  of  instruction  to 
that  distinct  teaching  process  that  has  for  its  end  knowl- 
edge and  the  training  of  the  power  to  know,  a  train- 
ing possible  only  through  knozuing.  Instruction  in  this 
sense  is  a  definite  process  and  is  capable  of  intelligent 
study. 


I04  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

Instruction  Independent  of  Text-book. 

In  order  that  the  following  suggestions  may  be  as 
definite  and  helpful  as  possible,  they  are  made  with 
special  reference  to  oral  instruction  above  the  third 
school  year  where  such  instruction  has  more  definite 
knowledge  as  an  end,  and  hence  may  be  more  system- 
atic in  form.     In  the  lowest  grades  instruction 

Instruction  _  _  ° 

in  Lowest  sccks  to  dcvclop  primary  ideas  and  facts,  to 
Grades.  ^^ach  the  commou  qualities  and  relations  of 
things,  their  names  and  symbols,  etc.,  instruction  of 
the  highest  value,  it  is  true,  but  less  formal  and  system- 
atic than  in  higher  grades.  Moreover,  much  of  the 
knowledge  taught  in  primary  grades  is  more  or  less 
closely  related  to  the  learning  of  some  art,  as  reading, 
language,  number,  music,  etc.,  instruction  and  drill  or 
practice  being  united  in  the  same  exercises.  Even  the 
early  lessons  on  plants  and  animals,  and  other  nature 
lessons,  may  properly  look  more  to  the  cultivation  of  a 
love  of  nature  and  the  sense  of  the  beautiful  than  to 
a  real,  much  less  a  scientific,  knowledge  of  the  objects 
presented.  Such  instruction  is  necessarily  free  and 
more  or  less  informal. 

We    are    now    prepared    to    consider   the    conditions 
which  are  necessary  to  the  highest  success  in  the  art  of 

Necessary  Oral  iustruction.  Among  these  requisites  are  : 
Conditions.  (^ j -)  the  faitJifiil  preparation  of  the  lesson  by 
the  teacher,  (2)  fidelity  to  this  preparation  iji  teaching  the 
lesson,  and  (3)  the  reproduction  and  revieiv  of  lessons  by 
the  pupils,  first  individual  lessons  and  then  series  of 
lessons.  It  will  be  seen  in  what  follows  that  each  of 
these  conditions  is  essential  to  complete  success  in  teach- 
ing subjects  orally. 


ORAL   INSTRUCTION.  IO5 

I.   The  Teacher's  Preparation. 

1.  It  is  an  axiom  of  oral  instruction  that  the  teacher 
must  have  a  clear  and  definite  knowledge  of  the  subject 
taught.  This  preparation  is  important  in  any  Knowledge 
teaching  exercise,  but  it  is  essential  in  instruc-  °^  subjects, 
tion.  No  one  can  teach  another  what  he  himself  does  not 
know.  What  the  teacher  knows  vaguely,  he  will  teach 
vaguely  ;   what  he  knows  clearly,  he  may  teach  clearly. 

Moreover,  the  teacher's  knowledge  not  only  must  be 
clear  and  definite,  but  it  must  be  fresh,  the  result  of 
recent  preparation.  No  one  can  teach  sue-  Fresh 
cessfully  out  of  last  year's  study.  He  must  ^"°^'^^e'=- 
bring  to  the  work  of  instruction  the  fresh  results  of 
recent  study.  In  another  place  ^  we  have  considered 
the  relation  of  a  thorough  and  fresh  knowledge  of  the 
subjects  taught  to  the  easy  control  of  pupils.  The  rela- 
tion of  such  knowledge  to  successful  instruction  is  still 
more  vital.  The  fresher  the  teacher's  knowledge,  the 
liveHer  his  interest ;  the  livelier  his  interest,  the  keener 
the  pupil's  interest ;  the  keener  their  interest,  the  closer 
their  attention  ;  and,  as  a  result,  the  easier  and  fuller 
their  mastery  of  what  is  taught.  Besides,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  his  class  the  teacher  has  no  time  for  efforts  to 
recall  what  is  forgotten  or  indefinite,  or  to  run  down 
some  new  truth.  All  his  powers  need  to  be  in  ready 
command.  He  must  be  quick  to  follow  his  pupils' 
activities,  to  discern  what  they  know,  and  to  see  where 
Hght  is  needed.  All  this  requires  fullness  and  freshness 
of  preparation. 

Nor  is  it  enough  that  the  teacher  have  a  thorough 
and  fresh  knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be  taught.     His 

1  White's  "  School  Management,"  pp.  21-26. 


I06  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

preparation    must  determine  wJiat  is  to  be  taught.     His 

knowledge  may  be  much  wider  than  the  proper  limits  of 

the  lesson,  since  this  must  be  adapted  to  the 

The   Lesson.  i        i  -t  r       i  -. 

mental  condition  and  ability  of  the  pupils. 
For  example,  it  is  not  possible  for  young  children  to 
comprehend  the  wider  relations  of  things  and  events, 
and  especially  their  causal  relations.  "  Children,"  says 
Dr.  De  Garmo,  "  can  make  simple  association  of  facts, 
but  they  see  no  far-reaching  unifying  principles."  There 
may  be  a  "  causal  flexus  "  that  binds  all  knowledge  into 
an  organic  unity,  but  young  children  are  not  philosophic 
spiders  that  gather  knowledge  by  excursions  over  a  web 
of  philosophic  causation.  Human  knowledge  is  the 
result  of  human  knowing,  and  hence  every  branch  of 
study  has  its  natural  phases  that  correspond  to  the  psy- 
chical phases  through  which  pupils  pass  as  they  ascend 
in  the  grades.  This  fact  should  be  kept  in  mind  by  the 
teacher  when  determining  the  knowledge  to  be  taught 
in  a  given  lesson.  It  is  often  quite  as  important  to  see 
what  not  to  teach  as  it  is  to  determine  what  to  teach. 

An  oral  lesson  cannot  be  mapped  out  solely  or  chiefly 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  subject  to  be  taught.  The 
Adaptation  Capability  of  the  learner  must  also  receive 
to  Capability,  consideration.  It  is  not  possible,  and  it  is 
certainly  not  desirable,  to  attempt  to  teach  subjects 
exhaustively  or  even  logically  in  primary  schools.  Only 
the  more  elementary  phases  of  these  subjects  can  be 
thus  early  taught  or  acquired. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  all  lessons  to  be  taught  orally 

should  be  prepared  in  writing,  as  has  been  urged.     The 

Written      cssential  thing  is    for  the  teacher   to  know 

Outlines,      clearly  and  fully  the  facts  to  be  taught,  to 

have  them  not  only  within  possible  reach  but  fresh  in 


ORAL   INSTRUCTION.  lO/ 

mind.  There  may  be  advantage  in  the  study  of  a  lesson 
to  note  the  leading  facts,  even  to  express  them  in  the 
best  possible  form,  but  such  notes  will  have  small  use 
in  actual  instruction.  To  write  out  all  the  facts  to  be 
taught,  or,  what  is  worse,  the  questions  that  are  to  be 
used  in  their  development,  is  to  put  upon  the  elementary 
teacher  an  unreasonable  burden,  without  any  compen- 
sating increase  in  teaching  skill.  It  will  be  found  an 
excellent  plan  to  arrange  the  subject-matter  of  a  lesson 
in  topics,  thus  indicating  not  only  what  is  to  be  taught, 
but  the  order  of  presentation,  the  requisite  to  be  next 
considered. 

2.  The  teacher's  preparation  must  determine  not  only 
the  facts  to  be  taught  but  also  tJic  order  of  tJicir presenta- 
tion.    The  facts  in  a  simple  lesson  have  their 

/  Order  of 

proper  sequence,  and  it  is  important  that  this  Presenta- 
sequence  be  known  and  followed.  The  se-  *'°"' 
quence  to  be  observed  in  teaching  facts  is  not  neces- 
sarily their  logical  order.  Indeed,  the  logical  order  of 
facts  is  usually  not  the  order  in  which  they  are  best 
taught  or  acquired.  It  is  the  psychical  sequence  of 
knowledge  that  chiefly  determines  the  order  of  its  pres- 
entation in  instruction.  This  order  usually  begins  with 
what  is  known.  The  maxim,  "From  the  known  to  the 
related  unknown,"  has  special  application  to  the  subject- 
matter  of  an  oral  lesson.  To  bring  the  known  clearly 
into  consciousness  it  may  be  necessary,  as  will  be  shown 
later,  to  reproduce  what  has  been  taught. 

A  knowledge  lesson  should  begin  with  the  known  and 
develop  in  proper  order  the  subject,  and  the  facts  thus 
grouped  should  present  a  whole,  a  iinit  of      Lesson  a 
knoivlcdge.     It  is  agreed  by  nearly  all  writers        ""'* 
on  teaching  that  every  lesson  should  be  a  unit,  not  a 


I08  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

scatteration.  Facts  closely  related  to  the  subject  devel- 
oped may  properly  be  introduced  for  explanation  or 
illustration,  but  there  should  be  no  lugging  in  of  facts 
for  the  sake  of  mingling  different  subjects.  The  true 
theory  of  concentration  has  no  justification  for  the  me- 
chanical mixing  of  studies  in  the  same  lesson.  The 
attempt  to  make  a  lesson  in  geography,  for  example, 
also  a  lesson  in  arithmetic,  history,  literature,  mythology, 
etc.,  is  almost  sure  to  result  in  fantastic  combinations, 
and  what  is  worse,  in  a  sad  dissipation  of  energy. 
The  Ziller  theory  of  the  concentration  of  studies 
around  one  central  core  is  accepted  by  few  American 
educators  (p.  Jj),  and  few  of  these  would  do  the  mix- 
ing in  lessons.  The  subject-matter  of  an  oral  lesson 
should  be  presented  in  proper  sequence,  and  the  deter- 
mining of  this  sequence  or  order  is  an  essential  part  of 
the  teacher's  preparation.  This  demands  the  exclusion 
of  non-related  facts,  howsoever  interesting,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  the  lesson  as  a  group  of  unified  knowl- 
edge.^ 

3.  The  teacher's  preparation  of  a  lesson  must  also 
determine  the  tnctJiods  to  be  used  in  teaching  the  several 
Methods  to  fcicts.  As  showu  in  a  previous  chapter,  some 
be  used.  kuowlcdgc  must  be  taught  objectively  ;  other 
knowledge  by  the  indirect  or  training  method ;  and 
other  knowledge  must  be  taught  directly  by  means  of 
language  and  illustration.     The  teaching  of  the  several 

1"  Every  study  that  is  important  enough  to  be  a  study  has  its  appointed 
time  in  the  program  during  which  it  dominates  the  work  of  the  hour,  and 
everything  else  is  incidental  and  secondary.  ...  To  branch  off  into  some 
other  subject,  no  matter  how  closely  connected,  and  to  become  absorbed  in 
its  treatment,  means  simply  to  be  side-tracked,  to  lose  one's  bearings,  to  be 
guilty  of  illogical  and  unsystematic  thinking." — Charles  A.  McMurry 
in  "  Second  Year  Book  "  of  National  Herbart  Society,  p.  19= 


ORAL   INSTRUCTION.  IO9 

facts  and  principles  grouped  in  a  lesson  may  involve 
the  use  of  all  three  of  these  methods.  Moreover,  while 
methods  of  instruction  are  primarily  determined  by  the 
nature  of  the  knowledge  taught  (p.  59),  there  must  be 
an  intelligent  adaptation  of  methods  to  the  Adaptation 
capacity  of  pupils.  The  use  of  the  objective  °f  Methods 
method  also  involves  the  preparation  of  materials. 
These  facts  make  a  study  of  the  methods  to  be  em- 
ployed in  teaching  a  lesson,  a  very  important  part  of  the 
teacher's  preparation. 

In  determining  the  order  and  method  of  presenting 
different  lessons,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  running 
them  into  one  mold.  It  is  easy  to  adopt  a  Lesson 
general  lesson  plan  and  then  force  the  pres-  Plans, 
entation  of  every  lesson  into  it.  Such  a  procedure 
is  almost  sure  to  become  a  monotonous  routine,  devoid 
of  spontaneity  and  life.  It  hardly  needed  Krapelin's  ex- 
periments to  show  that  monotony  of  thought  and  feeling 
is  a  source  of  fatigue.  It  is  always  a  difficult  task  to 
sustain  interest  under  the  stupefying  influence  of  same- 
ness, and  this  is  specially  true  in  oral  instruction. 
While  there  must  be  an  orderly  procedure  in  a  lesson 
from  beginning  to  end,  there  must  be  variety  and  fresh- 
ness. 

The  lesson  plan  was  one  of  the  early  hobbies  of  the 
normal  school.  When  the  writer  first  began  to  visit 
schools,  he  found  it  easy  to  recognize  the  graduates  of 
certain  normal  schools  by  their  method  of  presenting 
lessons.  In  the  fifties  the  writer  gave  one  Eariy  ex- 
of  these  general  lesson  plans,  then  coming  peiience. 
into  vogue,  a  trial  in  teaching  geography  in  a  Cleveland 
grammar  school.  The  plan  thus  tested  outlined  in  the 
form  of  general  topics   a  definite  series  of  facts  to  be 


no  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

learned  in  their  order  in  the  study  of  every  continent 
and  country.  In  the  study  of  political  divisions,  espe- 
cially the  American  states,  it  became  a  dreary  routine, 
and  was  soon  abandoned  for  freer  work  under  the 
guidance  of  special  topics  for  each  country  studied.^ 
The  order  and  the  method  of  oral  instruction  should 
have  special  reference  to  the  individual  character  of 
the  lesson  to  be  taught.  No  two  lessons  permit  pre- 
cisely the  same  presentation. 

It   may  be   objected    that   the    preparation    for   oral 

teaching,  indicated  above,  is  not  within  the  teacher's 

ability,  especially  when  several  oral  lessons 

Objection.  ,  .  ,    .,      .  •,■>••  , 

are  to  be  given  daily  in  addition  to  other  exer- 
cises. But  this  is  an  objection  to  the  attempt  to  teach 
many  subjects  orally,  excepting  in  lower  grades  where 
lessons  are  necessarily  brief  and  closely  related.  In 
upper  grades,  it  is  far  better  to  give  fewer  oral  lessons 
each  week  than  to  give  these  lessons  in  a  haphazard 
way.  Oral  teaching  is  a  difficult  art,  and  success  is  not 
possible  in  the  absence  of  thoughtful  preparation.  Even 
the  brief  lessons  in  primary  schools  need  to  be  well  pre- 
pared. 

2.   The  Lesson. 

The  first  requisite  in  teaching  the  lesson  \^  fidelity  to 
its  preparation.  The  lesson  should  be  taught  as 
planned,  the  facts  presented  in  proper  order,  and  with 

1  The  reader  who  has  seen  the  writer's  early  "  Class  Book  of  Geography  " 
(now  out  of  print),  may  recall  its  special  topics  for  the  study  of  each 
particular  country,  topics  largely  based  on  the  descriptive  text  of  the 
geography  in  use.  This  little  manual  had  its  origin  in  this  Cleveland 
grammar  school,  a  school  now  somewhat  famous.  The  manual  was 
especially  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  pupils  in  this  school,  but  it  took 
wings  and  flew  over  the  country. 


ORAL   INSTRUCTION.  Ill 

the  highest  possible  skill  in  the  use  of  methods.  There 
should  be  orderly  progress  from  start  to  finish,  with 
the  least  possible  dissipation  of  energy.  The  Fidelity  to 
aim  should  be  to  lead  the  pupils  to  clear  and  Preparation, 
definite  knowledge  by  their  own  activity.  At  every 
step  it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  true  teaching  is 
the  occasioning  of  rigJit  activity  in  the  pupil ;  that  it  is 
the  pupil's  mental  activity,  not  the  teacher's,  that  de- 
termines the  result. 

This  advice  was  recently  given  a  company  of 
teachers : 

"  Throw  your  preparation  out  the  window.  Look  into  your  pupils' 
faces  for  inspiration.  Let  them  ask  questions.  These  questions 
will  show  what  they  wish  to  know,  and  what  you  should  teach." 

This  is  certainly  very  bad  advice  even  for  a  primary 
teacher.  Pupils  may  thus  be  kept  mentally  active, 
even  tiptoeing,  but  in  most  cases  there  is  a  Teacher's 
sad  dissipation  of  activity.  It  is  the  teacher's  Function, 
function  to  determine  the  aim  and  purpose  of  a  given 
exercise  ;  and  the  quality  and  value  of  the  pupil's  thought 
activity  will  depend  largely  on  the  teacher's  direction 
and  stimulation.  Not  only  should  every  lesson  have  a 
definite  end,  but  the  teacher  should  guide  the  pupils  to 
that  end.  The  questions  of  pupils,  when  pertinent, 
should  receive  due  attention,  but  these  should  not  deter- 
mine the  subject-matter  of  instruction.  There  should  be 
few  diversions  thus  occasioned,  and  these  should  be  fully 
under  the  teacher's  control.  The  teacher  is  the  guide 
and  occasioner  of  the  pupil's  activity. 

In  the  preparation  of  exercises  the  teacher  may  prop- 
erly make  excursions  into  other  studies  for  closely  related 
facts,  as  well  as  for  illustrations ;  and  in  primary  instruc- 
tion it  is  possible  to  utilize  the  principle  of  unification, 


112  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

somewhat  inaptly  called  concentration.     Here  the  mate- 
rials for  reading  and  for  language  may  be  drawn  from 
different  sources,  and  the  arts  may  often  be 

Excursions  -' 

into  Other     SO  United  as  to  make  them  assist  each  other. 

Studies.  Drawing,  for  example,  may  aid  language, 
and,  to  some  extent,  reading.  But  the  attempt  to 
realize  several  purposes  in  an  exercise  usually  results  in 
weakness  and  failure,  in  a  scatteration,  not  in  concen- 
tration. It  is  not  easy  in  teaching  to  kill  two  birds  with 
one  stone.     A  good  teaching  exercise  is  unified  activity. 

The  prior  caution  against  the  adoption  of  a  fixed  les- 
son plan  in  preparing  lessons  applies  equally  to  the  tak- 

Formai       "ig  of  the  Same  formal  steps  in  teaching  them. 

steps.  j^  seems  unnecessary  to  repeat  that  in  all 
lessons  the  pupils  should  be  put  in  the  right  mental  atti- 
tude, and  that  the  subject-matter  of  the  lesson  should  be 
properly  presented  and  taught.  But  lessons  vary  greatly 
in  subject-matter,  and  hence  the  steps  taken  in  teaching 
them  must  vary.  All  knowledge  is  not  acquired  by  the 
same  mental  processes,  and  it  follows  that  all  knowledge 
cannot  be  taught  in  the  same  way  or  by  the  same  steps. 
There  are  lessons,  especially  in  higher  grades,  in  which 
tierbart's  five  formal  steps  may  be  used  with  advantage; 
but  there  are  many  lessons,  especially  in  lower  grades, 
which  cannot  be  forced  into  such  a  formal  procedure 
without  a  sacrifice  of  interest  and  success.  The  actual 
process  of  instruction  should  be  varied,  free,  and  vital, 
—  not,  however,  unplanned  and  haphazard. 

3.   The  Reproduction  of  the  Lesson. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  American  educators,  who  have 
good  opportunities  for  forming  an  intelligent  judgment, 


ORAL  iMSTRUcriOM.  II3 

that  much  of  the  oral  instruction  in  our  schools,  especially 
below  the  fifth  school  year,  runs  to  waste  and  disappears  ; 
that  this  is  not  only  true  of  mere   "  impres-  .,,    , 

-'  ^  Weakness  of 

sion  "  lessons,  but  is  also  true  of  exercises  that  American 
aim  to  teach  knowledge.  An  inquiry  as  to  ^^'^  '"^ 
the  cause  of  this  waste  seems  to  disclose  the  fact  that  it 
is  largely  due  to  a  failure  to  utilize  the  results  reached, 
whether  these  be  knowledge  or  power,  —  a  failure  to 
correlate  properly  the  knowledge  learned  in  one  lesson 
with  succeeding  lessons ;  a  failure  to  keep  in  hand, 
if  the  expression  is  permissible,  the  results  reached 
by  instruction.  Lessons  are  given  well,  it  may  be  very 
skillfully ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  results  are  not  properly 
reviewed  and  fixed.  Foreign  educators  who  have 
visited  American  schools  express  admiration  for  the 
skill,  even  brilliancy,  of  our  teachers,  especially  women, 
in  giving  oral  instruction ;  but  they  do  not  fail  to  note 
their  weakness  as  a  class  in  fixing  in  mind  what  has 
been  taught,  in  utilizing  results.  "  It  is  more  impor- 
tant," says  Diesterweg,  "to  retain  what  has  been 
learned  than  to  learn  something  new  and  forget  what 
preceded." 

What  is  specially  needed  to  strengthen  oral  instruction 
in  American  schools  is  the  reproduction  of  lessons  by  the 
p7ipils,  a  practice  in  which  trained  German 

t     I         '  I  Reproduc- 

teachers  specially  excel.  Pupils  should  have  tion  of 
needed  opportunity  to  express  what  they  learn 
as  the  lesson  progresses,  and,  at  its  close,  they  should 
state  fully  and  clearly  all  important  facts  learned,  not 
the  mere  details,  but  the  essential  facts.  This  reproduc- 
tion may  be  made  not  only  a  fine  test  of  knowledge  and 
ability,  but  also  an  admirable  training  in  thinking,  and 
in  the  clear  expression  of  knowledge. 

ART  OF  TEACHING  —  8 


114  ^'^^^  -'^^^'^'   ^P   TEACHING. 

It  is  true  that  a  skillful  lesson  is  a  training  not  only  in 
knowing,  but  also  in  the  expression  of  what  one  knows ; 
it  is  also  true  that  such  a  lesson  is  a  continued  testing 
of  the  pupil's  thinking  and  knowledge  ;  but  the  pupil's 
mental  activity  during  a  lesson  is  under  the  teacher's 
direction  and  stimulation.  Results  are  thus  reached, 
and  even  relations  are  seen  which  are  beyond  the  pupil's 
unaided  effort.      In  the  reproduction  of  a  les- 

Reproduc-  ' 

tion  at  Close  son,  the  pui)il  comes  to  the  front  and  the 
of  Lesson,  teachcr  retires,  and  this  is  specially  true 
when  the  reproduction  is  guided  by  topics  rather  than 
questions,  and  still  truer  when  guided  by  neither  ques- 
tions nor  topics.  In  brief  lessons  the  pupil  knows  what 
he  has  learned,  and  needs  only  practice  in  its  expression. 
A  skillful  reproduction  of  oral  lessons  in  American 
schools  would  more  than  double  their  value. 

But  it  is  not  enough  that  lessons  be  reproduced  at  the 
close.  They  should  be  again  reproduced  in  all  essential 
facts  at  the  opening  of  the  next  lesson,  and  especially 
should  this  be  done  when  the  lessons  are  closely  related. 
Whatever  may  be  true  of  the  correlation  of  the  different 
branches  in  a  course  of  study,  the  successive  lessons  in 
Correlation  cach  branch  should  be  closely  correlated 
of  Lessons,  -when  this  is  possible.  It  is  a  serious  mis- 
take to  teach  the  successive  lessons  in  a  given  branch, 
each  without  reference  to  those  that  precede  or  follow. 
The  successive  lessons  should  be  so  related  in  instruc- 
tion that  the  pupil's  progress  may  utilize  all  the  steps 
that  have  been  taken.  This  should  be  specially  true  of 
lessons  that  constitute  a  related  series.  It  is  not  enough 
that  the  facts  in  a  given  lesson  be  presented  in  their 
proper  order,  but  there  should  be  a  proper  scqjioicc  in 
lessons  ;  not  necessarily  a  logical  sequence,  but  a  natu- 


ORAL   INSTRUCTION.  II5 

ral  or  psychical  sequence,  the  passing  from  one  group 
of  facts  to  a  related  higher  group. 

This  suggests  the  importance  of  reproducing  lessons 
in  scries,  as  well  as  the  reproduction  of  the  separate  les- 
sons. Whenever  a  group  of  closely  related  lessons  is 
completed,  there  should  be  a  reproduction  of  Reproduc- 
the  series  by  the  pupils.  What  is  worth  t'oninseries. 
teaching  is  worth  fixing  in  the  memory,  not  as  tied-up 
facts  to  be  given  out  in  an  examination  and  then  forgot- 
ten, but  as  a  part  of  the  pupil's  comprehensive  and  sure 
knowledge  of  a  subject  or  branch.  The  value  of  such 
training  is  shown  by  the  admirable  manner  in  which 
German  pupils  meet  searching  tests  that  cover  several 
years  of  instruction. 

The  necessity  of  reviewing  studies  has  been  called  in 
question,  it  being  assumed  that  what  is  once  known 
well  will  be  abiding,  an  assumption  not  sus- 

Reviews. 

tained  by  experience.     But  it  may  certainly 
be  questioned  whether  pupils  can  know  subjects  well  if 
they  have  not  seen  their  relations  to  the  other  subjects 
in  a  series.     The  review  of  a  branch  of  study  as  a  whole 
is  always  helpful. 

It  is  not  meant  that  the  reproduction  of  lessons  by 
pupils  should  be  exclusively  oral.  On  the  contrary,  as 
pupils  acquire  skill  in  writing,  the  oral  repro- 
duction  may  be  wisely  supplemented  by  the  production  of 
written,  the  successive  lessons  being  repro- 
duced in  writing,  and  finally  copied  in  a  blank  book  used 
for  the  purpose.  This  is  not  only  an  excellent  practice 
in  the  accurate  expression  of  one's  knowledge  in  writing, 
but  it  greatly  facilitates  reviews  from  time  to  time.  It 
is,  however,  important  that  special  care  be  taken  to 
secure  the  use  of  correct  written  forms  in  all  such  work. 


Il6  THE   ART  OF   TEACHIXG. 

Careless  and  inaccurate  written  work  results  in  bad 
habits  in  writing,  habits  that  become  a  serious  hin- 
drance in  acquiring  skill  in  the  use  of  correct  written 
forms  (p.  214). 

Nor  should  these  reproduction  exercises  be  limited  to 

the   oral   and   written    expression    of   what   is   learned. 

Whenever  practicable,  the  facts  and  princi- 

Reproduc-  ^  ^ 

tion  by       pies  Icamcd  should  be  applied  or  illustrated 
Application.    -^^  ^j.^^  pupils  in  assigned  seat  work.     Some 

lessons,  as  in  physics,  may  properly  be  supplemented 
by  the  solution  of  practical  problems ;  other  lessons 
by  graphic  illustrations,  as  map  drawing  and  modeling 
in  geography,  etc.  The  hand  has  an  important  function, 
not  only  in  utilizing,  but  in  clarifying  the  results  of  oral 
instruction. 


CHAPTER    X. 

INSTRUCTION    AND    BOOK    STUDY. 

Sir  Oracle  in  pedagogy  cries  :  "  Throw  text-books  out 
of  the  window.  Teach  every  subject  as  if  there  were  no 
text-book  in  the  universe."  In  recent  years  The 
this  oracular  advice  in  varying  forms  has  been  Text  book, 
so  often  repeated,  and  with  such  emphasis,  that  not  a 
few  teachers  have  come  to  believe  that  the  use  of  text- 
books by  pupils  belongs  to  a  by-gone  regime  in  school 
training.  Indeed,  there  are  teachers  who,  if  their  pupils 
should  be  caught  by  a  visitor  reciting  a  text-book  lesson, 
would  have  the  traditional  feeling  of  the  man  caught 
with  one  of  his  neighbor's  sheep  on  his  shoulders ! 
They  have  such  a  holy  fear  of  being  called  an  old 
fogy  that  they  are  not  a  little  distressed  over  the  fact 
that  it  is  not  possible  to  teach  reading  without  the  use 
of  a  book !  The  presence  of  the  book  suggests  an  old- 
time  regime.  They  feel  that  reading  ougJit  to  be  taught 
without  a  book  in  the  hands  of  pupils. 

This  effort  to  discredit  the  use  of  text-books  in  school 
instruction  is  strangely  paralleled  by  an  equally  earnest 
and  more  intelligent  effort  to  promote  the  Reading 
reading  of  books  by  children  and  youth.  Movement. 
This  effort  takes  the  form  of  children's  reading  circles, 
circulating   school    libraries,   early   literature    exercises, 

117 


Il8  THE  ART  OF   TEACHING. 

etc.-  This  reading  movement  assumes  that  books  con- 
tain something  worth  knowing ;  that  the  inteUigent 
reading  of  good  books  is  a  source  of  wisdom  and 
culture. 

Moreover,  it  is  conceded  by  intelligent  educators  that 
one  of  the  very  important  functions  of  school  training 
Reading  is  to  givc  pupils  the  ability  and  the  desire 
the  Key.  |-q  read  thoughtful  books.  Reading  is  the 
key  that  unlocks  the  recorded  thought,  acquisitions,  and 
experience  of  the  race.  "  Reading,"  says  Lowell,  "is 
the  key  which  admits  us  to  the  whole  world  of  thought 
and  fancy  and  imagination,  to  the  company  of  saint 
and  sage,  of  the  wisest  and  wittiest  at  their  wisest  and 
wittiest  moments.  It  enables  us  to  see  with  the  keenest 
eyes,  to  hear  with  the  finest  ears,  and  to  hsten  to  the 
sweetest  voices  of  all  time." 

But  the  ability  to  read  the  printed  page  does  not 
come  "by  natur."  It  is  acquired  by  practice,  just  as 
Husking  every  other  art  is  acquired.  The  ability  "  to 
Thought,  pic]^  thought  out  of  its  verbal  husk,"  as  Dr. 
Woolsey,  of  Yale,  once  defined  reading  power,  is  trained 
by  husking  thought,  and  in  no  other  way.  The  power 
to  read  books  is  not  acquired  by  flitting  from  page  to 
page,  skimming  for  information  or  entertainment,  and 
skipping  all  passages  that  require  earnest  thought.  In 
a  masterly  address  at  Asbury  Park,  in  1894,  on  "The 
Study  of  Literature,"  Professor  Moulton,  of  the  Chicago 
University,  stated  that  the  weakness  of  his  students  in 
literature  is  "not  that  they  are  deficient  in  taste  or 
judgment,  but  simply  that  they  have  not  the  pozvcr  to 
ready'  and,  for  the  reason,  that  "  they  have  dissipated 
this  power  by  skimming  newspapers  and  magazines," 
and,  as  he  might  have  added,  by  skimming  books. 


INSTRUCTION  AND  BOOK  STUDY.  119 

The  aim  of  book  study  and  reading  is  the  same,  to 
wit,  to  husk  the  author  s  thought.  Study  is  simply  more 
intensive  than  reading,  a  more  earnest  and  Aim  of 
persistent  effort  to  get  the  author's  meaning ;  ^°°^  study, 
but  reading  that  fails  to  do  this  is  not  reading  in  any 
true  sense.  It  is  through  the  study  of  books  that  the 
pupil  comes  into  the  power  to  master  books,  and  hence 
book  study  has  a  very  important  place  in  school  train- 
ing. The  chief  value  of  the  writer's  school  and  college 
training  resulted  largely  from  the  opportunity  thus 
afforded  him  to  attack  and  master  books,  books  that  re- 
quired earnest  and  thoughtful  study.  He  regrets  that 
this  was  not  supplemented  more  by  the  study  of  things 
and  phenomena,  especially  in  the  natural  sciences, 
but  nothing  could  be  a  substitute  for  those  years  of 
book  mastery.  The  decline  in  book  study  has  been 
attended  with  a  marked  neglect  and  slight  of  books. 
"For  many  years,"  says  Dr.  T.  C.  Mendenhall,  "I 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  asking  young  men  con- 
cerning the  text-books  which  they  had  used  in  the 
high  school  or  academy.  Not  one  in  ten  has  been 
able  to  tell  me  the  names  of  the  authors  of  these 
books."  ^ 

What  is  needed  in  American  schools  is  not  the  non- 
use  of  text-books,  but  their  proper  use  ;  and  this  involves 
a  rational  union  of  instruction  and  book  study,      union  of 
the  latter  increasing  as  pupils  advance  in  the    '"^^'■"^*'°" 

°  ^      ^  and  Book 

course.     This  union  is  one  of  the  important        study, 
problems  in  American  education,  a  problem   that  can 
not  be  met  by  gush  over  the  so-called  German  method 
of    oral    teaching  —  a    method    dependent    on    peculiar 
German  conditions,  and  one   that   is    not  wholly  satis- 

1  Proceedings  of  N.  E,  A.,  1899,  ?•  S^?- 


I20  THE   ART   OF  TEACHING. 

factory  even  in  Germany.^  It  is  the  duty  as  well  as 
the  privilege  of  American  teachers  to  develop  and  per- 
fect an  American  method  of  teaching,  one  adapted  to 
American  conditions  and  vitally  meeting  American  needs. 
The  objections  to  the  use  of  text-books  are  usually 
based  on  the  assumption  that  such  use  necessarily 
Memoriter  involvcs  the  Committing  of  the  text  to  mem- 
Methods.  Qi-y.  Indeed,  it  is  common  to  characterize 
the  text-book  method  as  the  memoriter  method  of  teach- 
ing. It  is  now  over  fifty  years  since  Horace  Mann, 
Henry  Barnard,  Calvin  E.  Stowe,  David  P.  Page,  and 
other  early  leaders  in  American  education,  called  at- 
tention to  the  weakness  of  the  memoriter  method,  and 
urged  a  more  rational  method  of  teaching.  If  our 
observations  are  trustworthy,  the  memorizing  of  text- 
books has  a  small  place  in  our  best  schools.  Indeed, 
there  is  reason  to  fear  that  in  many  schools  the  memory 
now  receives  too  little  attention.  There  are  definitions 
and  principles  in  nearly  every  branch  which,  when 
understood,  should  find  a  sure  place  in  the  memory. 
Literature  abounds  in  gems  of  thought  and  sentiment 
which,  treasured  in  the  memory,  enrich  the  life.  Nor 
can  it  be  asserted  as  a  principle  of  teaching,  that  nothing 
is  to  be  memorized  which  is  not  perfectly  understood. 
There  is  a  little  perfect  understanding  of  truth  by  the 
young.  Every  intelligent  person  has  carried  in  his 
memory  statements  of  truth,  as  verses  of  Scripture, 
which  only   the  experiences   of  life  have  made  plain. 

1  In  a  review  of  Dr.  Seeley's  "  German  Common  School  System," 
Dr.  Frederick  Pauslen,  of  the  University  of  Berlin,  concedes  that 
while  the  method  has  great  advantages,  it  has  serious  disadvantages. 
The  child  learns  too  little  to  help  himself,  and  depends  too  much  on  the 
teacher.  As  a  result,  when  he  leaves  school  in  most  cases  his  intellectual 
culture  ceases.     He  is  too  little  accustomed  to  help  himself  out  of  books. 


INSTRUCTION  AND   BOOK  STUDY.  121 

Moreover,  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  memori- 
ter  method  is  confined  to  the  use  of  text-books.  We  have 
seen  in  recent  years  more  memoriter  work  in  Memonter 
classes  not  using  a  text-book  than  in  classes  vvork. 
using  a  book,  and  certainly  with  less  reason.  It  is  com- 
mon to  see  definitions,  principles,  and  even  rules  written 
upon  the  blackboard,  and  then  copied  by  pupils  and 
learned  by  heart.  These  copied  statements,  if  original, 
are  seldom  so  good  as  those  found  in  standard  text- 
books, and  are  often  much  inferior  to  them.  In  some 
schools  the  class  books  thus  filled  by  the  pupils  are  really 
skeleton  text-books,  with  little  merit. 

Proper  Use  of  Text-books. 

The  use  of  a  book  the  first  three  years  of  school  is 
chiefly  limited  to  reading,  including  spelling ;  and  read- 
ing may  be  so  taught  during  these  years  as  use  in 
to  give  pupils  considerable  power  in  the  Reading, 
mastery  of  the  printed  page.  Indeed,  reading  should 
initiate  the  habit  of  book  study,  but  to  this  end,  the 
reading  lesson  must  be  made  an  effective  training  in 
thought  reading.  The  pupils  must  be  taught  the  con- 
cepts and  ideas  which  words  express,  and  then  be  led 
to  a  clear  grasp  of  the  thought  expressed  by  words. 
All  true  reading  is  thought  reading,  as  shown  in  a  sub- 
sequent chapter  (XVI.). 

The  teaching  of  number  presents  the  next  opportunity 
for  the  use  of  a  book,  and  this  may  be  improved  to  advan- 
tage as  early  as  the  third  school  year.     The       use  in 
elementary  arithmetic  stands  next  to  the  reader      Number. 
as  a  means  of  training  children  in  thought  reading,  and 
especially  is  this  true  when  it  contains  numerous  simple 


122  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

problems  for  study,  grasp,  and  solution.  There  is  no 
more  effective  training  for  a  child  in  thought  reading 
than  the  grasp  of  the  simple  relations  between  concrete 
numbers  expressed  in  language.  The  printed  manual 
has  several  important  advantages  over  number  exer- 
cises written  on  the  board  (Chap.  XX.). 

In  the  fourth  or  fifth  school  year,  an  elementary  man- 
ual of  geography  may  properly  be  added  to  those  in  read- 
use  in  Other  i^ig  and  arithmetic.  There  is  no  book  better 
Branches,  suitcd  for  pupils  of  this  agc  than  a  good 
elementary  geography.  The  oral  lessons  of  the  previous 
years  have  given  the  pupils  a  clear  knowledge  of  many 
primary  facts,  and  the  test  is  accompanied  with  maps 
and  illustrations  which  greatly  assist  in  its  mastery. 
No  elementary  branch  permits  a  more  complete  and 
satisfactory  union  of  oral  teaching  and  book  study 
during  this  intermediate  period.  In  the  last  three  years 
of  the  grammar  school  course,  the  study  of  physiology 
and  hygiene,  United  States  history,  and  English  gram- 
mar (last  two  years)  afford  increasing  opportunities  for 
the  study  of  books. 

It  is  thus  seen,  without  going  more  into  details,  that 
even  an  elementary  course  of  study  affords  opportunities 
for  the  union  of  oral  instruction  and  book  study,  with 
increasing  power  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  to  master  the 
printed  page.  This  leads  to  the  question.  How  can  oral 
teaching  and  book  study  be  so  united  during  these  years 
as  to  give  pupils,  not  only  clear  knowledge,  but  effective 
training  in  book  mastery,  in  husking  thought  .-*  This 
suggests  a  preliminary  inquiry  as  to  the  nature  of  oral 
instruction  when  based  on  a  text-book. 


instruction  and  book  study.  123 

Instruction  based  on  the  Text-book. 

The  first  suggestion  is  that  such  instruction  must 
have  a  close  relation  to  book  study  by  the  pupils.  If 
the  several  subjects  are  taught  independently  of  the  text- 
book, the  necessity  for  study  will  be  removed,  and  the 
use  of  the  book,  if  one  is  used,  will  be  apart  from  its  chief 
purpose,  to  wit :  the  training  of  the  power  to  ns  chief 
acquire  knowledge  from  books.  This  power  Purpose, 
can  be  trained  only  by  successful  book  study  and  mas- 
tery. It  follows  that  the  chief  purpose  of  oral  instruc- 
tion when  based  on  a  book  lesson,  is  to  prepare  the  pupil 
for  the  intelligent  study  of  the  text.  In  other  words,  in 
the  desired  union  of  oral  instruction  and  book  study  the 
former  must  be  made  preparatory  to  the  latter:  This 
means  that  the  necessity  for  study  is  not  to  be  obviated 
by  the  instruction,  but  rather  that  success  in  study  is 
thus  to  be  made  possible. 

When  book  lessons  are  assigned,  instruction  should 
be  given  only  when  needed  and  only  to  the  extent 
needed.  This  excludes  the  teaching  of  the  when  to 
lesson  exhaustively  and  without  reference  to  ^^  given, 
the  author's  treatment.  It  is  feared  that  oral  instruction 
often  breaks  down  study  by  removing  all  necessity  for 
the  pupil's  effort  to  know  the  author's  meaning.  This 
is  not  the  union  of  instruction  and  study,  but  the  sub- 
stitution of  instruction  for  study,  the  subversion  of  the 
book's  function. 

It  is  evident  that  the  nature  and  extent  of  preparatory 
instruction  will  depend  not  only  on  the  age  and  ability 
of  the  pupils,  but  on  the  nature  of  the  subject     ^g  Nature 
and  the  character  of  the  text-book  used.      In    and  Extent, 
arithmetic    the    definitions,    principles,    and    rules    are 


124  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

reached  by  inductive  generalization,  and  tlie  examples 
and  problems  in  the  book  may  afford  the  necessary  data 
for  the  pupil  to  make  these  generahzations.  The  only 
instruction  needed  is  indirect,  there  being  no  necessity 
to  tell  pupils  anything  directly.  The  same  is  true  in 
English  grammar.  The  facts  and  laws  of  language  are 
best  reached  by  the  study  of  language.  The  relations 
of  words  in  the  sentence  are,  for  example,  learned  by 
the  study  of  sentences.  The  method  is  objective,  lan- 
guage itself  being  the  object  presented  and  studied. 
The  material  for  this  study  may  be  quite  fully  pre- 
sented in  the  text-book,  and  comparatively  little  prepara- 
tory instruction  may  be  required.  On  the  contrary  the 
book  may  treat  each  subject  in  a  logical  order,  begin- 
ning with  definitions,  and  much  instruction  may  be 
necessary  to  prepare  pupils  for  successful  study.  Few 
pupils  mastered  without  preparatory  instruction  the  old- 
time  text-books  on  English  grammar. 

But  in  such  information  studies  as  physiology  and 
hygiene  and  history,  it  is  possible  for  pupils  to  master 
Information  the  book  with  less  preparatory  instruction, 
studies.  jt  jg  xxMQ,  that  the  author  may  not  present  all 
the  facts  which  the  pupils  should  learn,  and  the  order  in 
which  facts  or  events  are  presented  may  not  be  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  teacher's  views,  but  nothing  is  gained 
by  "throwing  the  book  out  of  the  window."  This  will 
deprive  the  pupil  of  the  opportunity  to  acquire  book 
power,  the  ability  to  master  books.  It  is  to  be  kept  in 
Important  mind  that  knowledge  is  not  the  only  end  in 
End.  view  in  teaching,  but,  what  may  be  more  im- 
portant, the  training  of  the  pupil s  poiver  to  acquire  knowl- 
edge from  books. 

This  leads  us  back  to  the  suggestion  that,  when  book? 


INSTRUCTION  AND   BOOK  STUDY.  12$ 

are  studied,  over  instruction  is  to  he  avoided.  As  already 
stated,  it  is  possible  to  teach  a  subject  so  fully  as  to  re- 
move all  necessity  for  book  study.  This  over 
error  is  often  seen  in  visiting  high  schools  and  instruction, 
even  colleges.  We  were  recently  present  at  an  exercise 
in  civics  in  an  eastern  high  school.  The  teacher  talked 
on  the  subject  under  consideration  during  the 

.  .  Examples. 

entire  lesson  period.  JNot  a  question  was 
asked,  not  a  pupil  said  a  word  ,  and,  so  far  as  we  ob- 
served, not  a  note  was  taken.  In  another  high  school 
an  exercise  in  physiology  was  witnessed.  The  teacher 
developed  the  lesson  mainly  as  it  was  presented  in  the 
book  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils,  and  this  was  done 
without  testing  in  any  way  the  pupils'  knowledge  of  the 
subject.  In  reply  to  a  question  after  the  dismissal  of 
the  class,  the  teacher  stated  that  she  felt  obliged  to 
teach  the  lesson  thus  because  of  the  inability  of  the 
pupils  to  study.  She  added  that  it  took  most  of  the 
first  year  to  teach  the  pupils  to  study  a  book  lesson. 
The  surprise  was  that  they  learned  to  study  even  in 
one  year  under  such  instruction. 

But  high  school  teachers  are  not  in  this  fault  sinners 
above  all  men  who  fill  the  teaching  office.  Some  years 
ago,  when  in  an  official  position,  we  witnessed  a  coiiege 
a  recitation  in  analytics  in  an  Ohio  college.  Example. 
The  professor  developed  the  lesson  on  the  board  fully, 
and,  it  may  be  added,  thoroughly,  his  effort  being  a  very 
faithful  reproduction  of  the  author's  treatment  in  the 
book  in  the  hands  of  the  students.  Not  a  question  was 
asked  that  could  not  be  answered  by  yes  or  no,  or  even 
without  vocal  effort  by  a  nod  or  shake  of  the  head. 
The  exercise  closed,  and  we  were  about  to  enter  another 
room,  when  we  were  stopped  by  two  students  with  this 


126  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

question,  "  Beg  pardon,  Mr.  White.  How  did  you  like 
our  lesson  t  "  This  was  a  poser,  as  we  did  not  wish  to 
say  a  word  that  would  be  disparaging  to  the  professor. 
Our  wits  came  to  us  and  we  answered  in  the  most  indif- 
ferent manner,  "  The  professor  recited  admirably  !  " 

These  illustrations  suffice  to  show  the  kind  of  work 
that  is  likely  to  be  done  by  teachers  who  accept  the 
throw-the-book-out-the-window  injunction  as  sound  ped- 
agogic wisdom.  When  subjects  are  thus  taught,  it  is 
idle  formally  to  assign  lessons  from  books.  The  most 
superficial  study,  if  any,  is  sure  to  be  the  result. 

This  leads  to  the  suggestion  that  all  needed  prepara- 
tory instruction  may  often  be  given  in  the  assignment  of 
Assignment  ^^^^  Icsson,  this  being  specially  true  in  higher 
of  Lessons,  gradcs.  Fcw  teachers  realize  how  fine  a  test 
of  teaching  ability  and  success  is  the  manner  in  which 
lessons,  and  especially  book  lessons,  are  assigned.  A 
very  good  judgment  of  a  teacher's  work  may  often  be 
based  on  this  simple  test.  "  Take  the  next  chapter  ;  class 
dismissed,"  is  sufficient  ground  for  dismissing  a  teacher 
from  further  consideration  if  one  is  looking  for  a  first- 
class  instructor. 

A  lesson  for  study  should  be  assigned  in  a  definite 
and  suggestive  manner.  The  work  to  be  done  by  the 
pupils  should  be  clearly  indicated,  and  needed  help 
given.  Sometimes  this  assistance  may  be  a  simple  ref- 
erence to  a  subject  previously  studied ;  in  another  case 
it  may  send  the  pupils  to  another  book,  this  being  often 
true  in  biography  or  history.  Time  spent  in  the  proper 
assignment  of  a  lesson  saves  time,  not  only  in  study,  but 
in  the  teaching  of  the  lesson.  There  is  no  such  help  to 
success  in  study  as  the  definite,  suggestive,  and  inspir- 
ing assignment  of  the  lesson. 


INSTRUCTION  AND   BOOK  STUDY.  12/ 

But  it  is  not  enough  that  lessons  be  properly  assigned. 
It  is  equally  important  that  the  teacher  be  faithful  to  such 
assignment  in  the  vecitation.  A  recitation  that  secures 
thorough  preparation  always  has  a  good  memory.  The 
teacher  who  forgets  or,  for  other  reasons,  fails  Fidelity  to 
to  test  the  preparation  of  his  pupils  in  the  Assignment. 
directions  indicated  in  the  assignment  of  the  lesson  will 
not  long  secure  faithful  study.  If  there  be  a  probability 
that  their  work  will  not  be  tested,  most  pupils  will  take 
the  chance  and  neglect  study. 

The  writer  holds  in  pleasant  memory  a  teaching  exer- 
cise that  most  happily  illustrates  the  foregoing  principles 
and  suggestions.     It  was  the  skillful  work  of       Model 
a  teacher  of  history  in  a  city  high  school  in      Example. 
Ohio ;  and  is  best  described  in  the  language  of  a  visitor 
to  the  school,  as  follows  : 

"  The  day  I  visited  the  class  room  of  this  famous  teacher  of  history, 
the  lesson  was  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  The  recitation  was  nearly 
concluded  when  I  entered,  but  the  work  which  I  witnessed  was  in 
every  way  most  admirable.  Ten  minutes  before  the  close  of  the 
period,  the  teacher  entered  upon  the  assignment  of  the  next  lesson, 
which  was  on  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (first  half).  She  skillfully 
analyzed  the  reign,  giving  the  important  topics  to  be  studied ;  indi- 
cated what  was  most  important  to  know  under  each  topic,  and  for 
additional  information,  referred  the  pupils  to  several  other  histories 
in  the  public  library,  giving  page  and  often  paragraph.  All  this  was 
noted  by  the  pupils  whose  facile  pencils  followed  the  assignment. 
Thus  in  eight  minutes  she  had  put  before  the  pupils  clearly  and  defi- 
nitely with  needed  guidance  the  work  which  she  expected  them  to 
do,  and  they  were  evidently  deeply  interested  in  the  lesson. 

"  At  the  close  of  the  session  I  was  in  the  public  library  (fortunately 
in  the  same  building),  chatting  with  the  librarian,  who  was  an  old 
friend,  when  the  door  opened,  and  in  came  the  high  school  class  in 
history,  with  note  books  in  hand.  '  You  must  excuse  me  now,' 
said  the  librarian,  'there  comes  Miss  A 's  class.     That  woman 


128  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

gives  me  more  trouble  than  all  the  other  teachers  in  the  city ;  but  I 
like  it.  She  is  a  great  teacher.'  He  took  from  the  shelves  the  his- 
tories called  for,  and  they  were  taken  to  the  study  tables.  He  looked 
over  the  pupils'  notes,  and  then  took  down  other  histories  (he  was 
a  historian)  and  placed  them,  opened  to  the  right  page,  on  the 
tables.  Forty  minutes  were  spent  by  the  pupils  in  this  study,  and 
they  left  with  helpful  notes. 

"  I  returned  the  next  day  to  witness  the  recitation.  I  need  not  say 
that  it  was  admirable  from  start  to  finish.  The  teacher  did  not  give 
a  lecture  or  talk  on  the  reign  of  Henry  VHI.  She  had  sent  her 
pupils  to  books  for  information,  and  now  they  '  had  the  floor.' 
They  told  well  what  they  knew  on  the  topics  outlined,  showing  that 
they  had  read  books  to  some  purpose.  The  recitation  was  full  of 
interest  and  enthusiasm.  It  closed  in  time  for  the  assignment  of  the 
next  lesson." 

Possibly  some  reader  may  be  objecting  that  such 
ideal  work  is  possible  only  in  a  highly  favored  school. 
"  What,"  he  may  be  asking,  "  can  teachers 
do  who  have  no  public  library  at  hand .-' " 
They  can  certainly  do  a  similar  work.  Is  there  a 
teacher  of  United  States  history,  in  even  a  rural  school, 
that  cannot  have  two  or  three  histories  on  his  table .-' 
There  are  few  neighborhoods  in  which  one  or  two  his- 
tories could  not  be  borrowed  for  such  a  purpose.  Of 
course,  such  work  requires  preparation  on  the  teacher's 
part.  He  cannot  thus  use  books  if  he  does  not  read 
them  ;  does  not  know  what  assistance  they  can  afford  his 
pupils.  It  is  evident  that  pupils  thus  taught  are  acquir- 
ing the  ability  to  get  knowledge  from  books. 

It  is  seen  from  the  foregoing  discussion  that  there  are 
two  errors  which  should  be  avoided  in  the  use  of  text- 
books.    These  are  (i)  the  requiring  of  pupils 

Two   Errors.  ,         i      i  r  i   •    i        i  i 

to  master  book  lessons  tor  which  they  have 
not  been  properly  prepared,  and  (2)  the  removal  of  the 
necessity  of  study  by  too  much  instruction.     It  is  easy 


INSTRUCTION  AND   BOOK  STUDY. 


129 


to  make  either  of  these  mistakes.  The  general  principle 
to  be  observed  when  books  are  studied  is  that  assist- 
ance should  be  given  to  pupils  only  zvhen  it  is  needed. 
It  is  a  mistake  to  give  such  instruction  in  advance  as 
will  deprive  pupils  of  the  benefit  and  joy  of  mastering 
difficulties  by  their  own  efforts  ;  and  this  is  true  whether 
mental  training  or  knowledge  be  the  end  sought.  Every 
experienced  teacher  usually  knows  in  advance  what 
instruction,  if  any,  is  needed ;  and  instead  of  leaving 
his  pupils  to  sure  defeat,  he  will  throw  needed  light 
upon  anticipated  difficul- 
ties, and  thus  enable  his 
pupils  to  overcome  them 
with  the  feeling  that  the 
victory  is  their  own.  It 
is  one  thing  to  solve  a 
problem  for  a  pupil  and 
thus  rob  him  of  the  sense 
of  victory,  and  quite  an- 
other to  assist  him  to 
solve    it. 

It  may  be  added  that 
the  instruction  needed 
by  pupils  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  successful  study 
grows  less  as  they  ad- 
vance in  the  course,  and, 
as  a  result,  acquire  in- 
creasing power  to  master 
books.      A    like   relation 

holds  between  oral  instruction  and  book  study  in  school 
training.  As  the  one  decreases  the  other  increases,  as 
shown  in  the  graphic  illustration  above. 

ART  OF  TEACHING  —  9 


High 

OD 

School. 

0 

14  to  18. 

0 

— 

0  y 

X 

> 

r- 

\     c 

Grammar 

\    ^ 

School. 

z 

\  < 

10  to  14. 

CO 

\ 

H 

\ 

•Ji 

\ 

cz' 

\ 

0 

\ 

H 

\ 

\ 

Primary 

0 

School. 

z 

\ 

6  to  10. 

130  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  make  evident  the  importance 
of  pupils'  acquiring  in  school  the  art  of  study,  and  in- 
creasingly the  art  of  book  study.  The  unchallenged 
Neglect  of    chargc   that   the   pupils    promoted    to    high 

study.  schools  do  not,  as  a  class,  know  how  to  study 
is  a  pretty  serious  indictment  of  the  grammar  school. 
Teachers  who  have  had  twenty  or  more  years'  experi- 
ence in  high  schools  agree  that  pupils  now  admitted 
to  the  high  school  cannot  attack  and  master  a  book 
lesson  so  well  as  the  pupils  who  were  admitted  twenty 
years  ago ;  and  this  decline  in  book  power  is  generally 
attributed  to  the  absence  of  needed  book  study  in  the 
grammar  schools.  It  may  be  a  question  whether  this 
result  is  not  due  in  part  to  the  large  number  of  teachers 
under  whose  training  pupils  now  pass  in  reaching  the 
high  school,  teachers  with  varying  ideals  and  skill,  some 
undoing  the  good  work  done  by  others.  The  colleges 
repeat  this  complaint  against  the  high  school  and  acad- 
emy, though,  perhaps,  not  so  unanimously  or  strongly. 

In  seeking  a  remedy  for  this  alleged  dechne  in  book 

power,  it  is  helpful  to  see  at  the  outset  that  the  art  of 

study  cannot  be    formally  taught  to  pupils. 

cannot  be     It  is  rather  an  art  that  is  learned  only  by  its 

taught.  intelligent  exercise.  Both  the  art  and  the 
habit  of  study  are  acquired  by  actual  study  under  help- 
ful conditions  and  stimulus.  They  are  developed  in  the 
pupil  by  his  own  activity  and  effort,  largely  in  meeting 
school  requirements.  The  searching  recitation  is  both 
the  occasioner  of  study  and  the  test  of  its  results.  Indeed, 
the  character  and  the  degree  of  the  pupil's  study  are 
largely  determined  by  the  manner  in  which  lessons  are 
assigned,  and  the  character  of  the  subsequent  recitation. 
The  study  of  pupils  as  a  class  never  rises  higher  than  the 


INSTRUCTION  AND  BOOK  STUDY.  131 

teacher's  tests.  It  is  what  is  required  and  done  that  tells, 
not  what  is  talked  about  and  advised.  The  teacher 
must  see  that  pupils  study  in  the  right  way,  and  the 
recitation  must  make  this  right  way  a  necessity. 

Another  observation  seems  important.  The  success 
of  the  pupil's  study  depends  largely  on  his  forming 
clear   and   precise    ideas,  and   these  at   first    ^.      ^    ^ 

^  '  First  Study 

necessarily  lie  in  a  narrow  field.  The  wider  of  subjects 
the  ground  covered  in  elementary  study  the  a"ow. 
more  indistinct  and  vague  will  be  the  knowledge  ac- 
quired. In  acquiring  the  art  of  study  there  is  great 
advantage  in  first  learning  a  few  things  thoroughly. 
The  pupil  must  know  the  elements  of  a  subject  before  he 
is  prepared  for  a  discursive  and  wide  survey  of  it.  The 
process  of  widening  one's  knowledge  always  involves 
the  possession  of  some  definite  knowledge  to  widen. 

There  is  much  practical  wisdom  in  Alexander  Bain's 
suggestion  that  in  its  early  stages  instruction  should  be 
narrow  and  thorough,  narrow  in  order  that  Dr  Bain's 
it  may  be  thorough.  Discursive  and  wide  in-  suggestions, 
struction  comes  later.  Dr.  Bain  goes  so  far  as  to  urge 
that  one  good  text-book  is  sufficient  while  the  elements 
of  a  branch  are  being  learned  ;  this  to  be  mastered  before 
others  are  taken  up.  It  goes  without  saying  that  these 
suggestions  are  not  in  harmony  with  the  present  trend 
in  school  training. 

The  criticism  is  increasing  in  volume  that  too  much 
is  now  attempted  in  grammar  and  high  schools,  not 
simply  too  many  studies,  but  too  wide  and 

1  c-    ■    i  r  txii^  Criticism. 

hence  superficial  treatment  of  each.     It  looks 

as  if  the  so-called  "  enriching  of  the  course  of  study  " 

may  be  crowding  sttcdy  out  of  the  course. 


CHAPTER   XI. 
CLASS   INSTRUCTION. 

In  the  preceding  pages,  the  art  of  teaching  has  been 
considered  without  reference  to  the  number  of  pupils 
taught,  and  the  principles  reached  apply  equally  to  the 
teaching  of  one  or  several  pupils  in  a  given  exercise. 
But  it  does  not  require  a  very  wide  experience  or  obser- 
vation to  discover  that  it  demands  different  as  well  as 
higher  skill  to  teach  twenty  pupils  in  a  class  than  is 
necessary  to  teach  a  single  pupil ;  and  this  is  true 
whether  the  exercise  be  one  of  instruction  or  drilling 
or  testing. 

The  difficulty  involved  in  teaching  pupils  in  classes 

increases  with  the  number  of    pupils   taught.      While 

Number  of    there  may  be  many  teachers  who  can  teach 

Pupils.  three  or  four  pupils  about  as  well  as  one, 
there  are  comparatively  few  persons  who  can  teach 
large  classes  successfully.  Indeed,  the  skill  required 
to  teach  forty  pupils  in  a  class  may  be  more  than  double 
the  skill  required  to  teach  twenty  pupils.  Educators  of 
experience  usually  give  twenty  pupils  as  the  maximum 
number  for  satisfactory  class  work  by  the  average 
teacher.  But  it  is  evident  that  this  maximum  will  vary 
with  the  nature  of  the  exercise,  the  grade  of  the  pupils, 
and  especially  with  the  skill  of  the  teacher.  In  certain 
exercises  the  most  skillful  teachers  may  do  good  work 
with   as  many  as  forty  pupils.     In  most  studies  a  ma- 

132 


CLASS  IXSTRUCTION.  1 33 

jority  of  elementary  teachers  cannot  do  their  best  work 
with  more  than  ten  pupils  in  a  class,  for  the  good  reason 
that  they  have  never  studied  or  intelligently  practiced  tlie 
art  of  class  teacJiing. 

Before  any  attempt  is  made  to  study  this  art  it  seems 
important  to  determine  whether  pupils  in  school  should 
ever  be  taught  in  classes.  It  seems  hardly  individual- 
worth  while  to  study  an  art  that  should  never  •^'"• 
be  used.  It  is  clear  that  the  doctrine  of  iiidividualism 
in  school  training,  when  carried  to  its  logical  conclusion, 
denies  both  the  desirability  and  the  possibility  of  class 
instruction.  It  asserts  that  school  training  should  be 
guided  at  every  step  by  the  capabilities,  interests,  desires, 
and  needs  of  pupils  as  individuals  ;  and  then  it  assumes 
confidently  that  the  individual  endowments  and  needs 
of  pupils  are  so  unlike  and  varying  that  it  is  not  possible 
to  teach  them  successfully  in  classes.  It  asserts  that 
no  two  children  have  powers,  interests,  desires,  or  tastes 
in  common,  and  hence  that  each  child  must  be  studied 
and  trained  by  himself.  It  is  but  a  short  step  to  the 
conclusion  that  "  It  is  little  less  than  a  crime  to  attempt 
to  teach  pupils  in  classes  "  ;  that  the  imperative  need  of 
every  child  is  individual  instruction  and  training. 

It  is  evident  that  this  view  destroys  the  school,  except 
the  school  of  a  very  primitive  type.     It  is  not  possible 
to  base  class    instruction    on   the    individual      Assump- 
characteristics  of  pupils.     The  modern  school     *',°,"°^^''^ 

i      ^  Modern 

assumes  that  children  are  endowed  with  com-  school, 
mon  powers,  and  that  they  face  common  interests  and 
needs,  those  of  the  common  civilization  into  which 
they  are  born.  The  school  also  assumes  that  the  train- 
ing which  best  fits  children  for  the  duties  and  obHga- 
tions  of  life  is  based  primarily  on  their  common  powers, 


134  ^-^^^  ^^^   <^^   TEACHING. 

interests,  and  needs,  and  hence  that  this  training  is  best 
given  to  pupils  in  groups  or  classes.  The  prime  reason 
for  class  teaching  is  not  its  economy,  although  this  is 
an  important  principle,  but  its  efficiency  as  a  means  of 
preparation  for  both  individual  and  social  life. 

The  foregoing  assumptions  of  the  school  have  been 
fully  verified  by  an  experience  that  has  shovi^n  it  to  be 
Assumptions  ^^^  of  the  most  vital  institutions  of  modern 

verified.  civilization.  Generation  after  generation  of 
youth  have  thus  been  trained  for  high  service  and  use- 
fulness. Take  out  of  our  civilization  what  the  school 
with  its  courses  of  training  has  put  into  it,  and  the  change 
would  be  as  sad  as  marked.  What  diversity  of  power 
and  interest,  what  specializations  in  activity  and  enter- 
prise have  come  out  of  the  common  discipline  of  the 
American  school  and  college  !  Nor  will  it  suffice  to 
claim  that  all  this  marvelous  diversity  and  specialization 
in  effort  exist  in  spite  of  the  class  training  of  the  school 
and  college.  The  facts  do  not  warrant  the  claim.  The 
most  that  can  be  asserted  with  reason  is  that  greater 
adaptation  in  school  and  college  training  to  individual 
interests  and  needs  would  have  increased  this  diversity 
of  power  and  effort. 

This  extreme  theory  of  individualism  in  school  train- 
ing overlooks  the  fact  that  different  pupils  are  each 
,     endowed  with  special    power  to  appropriate 

Individual  ^  '■  i  i        x 

Power  of  Ap-  and  assimilate  from  common  elements  and 
propriation.  jjj^^  conditious  zvJiat  their  individual  natures 
need  for  nnrtnre  and grozvtJi.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
nature  of  the  child  more  individual  than  this  power  of 
selection  and  appropriation.  This  principle  has  an 
illustration  in  the  characteristic  physical  growth  of  chil- 
dren fed  at  a  common  table  and  subject  to  like  family 


CLASS  INSTRUCTIOM.  1 35 

conditions.  Nor  is  the  force  of  this  illustration  lessened 
when  the  diet  is  too  limited  in  kinds  of  food  to  permit 
any  play  of  taste  or  appetite  except  in  the  quantity  of 
food  eaten.  The  individual  variations  in  physical 
development  seem  to  be  as  great  when  food  is  limited 
in  kinds  as  when  there  are  many  kinds  of  food  provided. 
The  deeper  physiological  fact  is  the  power  of  the  physi- 
cal organism  to  appropriate  from  given  elements  what 
is  needed  for  individual  growth  and  activity. 

This  same  principle  of  individual  appropriation  and 
assimilation  holds  in  psychical  nurture  and  growth.  Just 
as  the  bodies  of  children  are  nourished  frorn 

1     1    •    1  1  T  ■^  Parallel. 

common  food  and  drmk,  each  accordmg  to 
its  own  nature  and  need,  so  their  souls  may  be  nour- 
ished by  common  instruction  and  training,  each  appro- 
priating according  to  its  individual  bent  and  nature. 
It  is  here  that  the  law  of  self-activity  has  its  finest 
illustration.  No  two  pupils  get  precisely  the  same 
activity  and  nurture  out  of  a  class  exercise.  Individ- 
ual interest  and  inclination  are  marvelously  keen  eyed 
and  quick  in  self-nurture. 

It  is  conceded  that  too  much  emphasis  has  been 
placed  in  school  training  on  what  is  common  and 
typical  in  pupils,  and  that  too  little  attention  correction 
has  been  given  to  what  is  characteristic  and  needed, 
individual.  But  in  correcting  this  error  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  other  extreme.  What  is 
needed  is  not  the  abandonment  of  the  class  system  but 
higher  skill  in  teaching  pupils  in  classes, — a  skill  that 
is  sufficiently  keen  eyed  to  note  individual  characteristics 
while  training  common  powers. 

Most  of  the  objections  to  class  instruction  urged  by 
the  advocates  of  individual  teaching  are  based  on  poor 


136  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

class  work,  the  pupils  being  described  as  inattentive 
and  listless,  and  the  exercise  as  destitute  of  interest  and 
„,.     .  power.     It  is  to  be  regretted  that  this  is  a 

Objections  to     '^  '-' 

Class  In-  true  picture  of  too  many  class  exercises,  but 
s  ruction.  ^^  failure  is  due  to  a  lack  of  skill  in  teach- 
ers. It  is  not  a  necessary  result  of  class  teaching. 
On  the  contrary,  in  a  skillful  class  exercise  every  pupil 
is  alert  and  active  from  the  beginning  to  the  close. 
The  pupil  reciting  only  expresses  what  the  other  pupils 
are  doing  mentally  or  are  critically  considering. 

In  an  ideal  class  exercise  this  common  activity  is 
necessitated  by  the  teacher,  and  this  is  an  essential  ele- 
ideai  Class  rncut  in  the  art  of  class  teaching.  Nor  is 
Exercise,  ^-y^  skillful  "  handUug  "  of  a  class  possible  to 
only  a  few  specially  gifted  teachers.  It  is  an  art  that 
every  capable  teacher  may  acquire,  an  art  that  has 
been  acquired  by  many  hundreds  of  earnest  teachers. 
It  involves,  in  addition  to  the  use  of  right  methods,  skill 
in  arousing  the  interest  and  holding  the  attention  of 
pupils;  and  this  involves  such  a  skillful  presentation 
of  subject-matter  as  will  necessitate  the  attention  and 
activity  of  the  entire  class.  The  same  questions  or  the 
same  topics  may  be  used  in  class  teaching  as  would  be 
used  in  individual  teaching,  but  in  the  former  the  ques- 
tions or  topics  must  be  so  put  before  the  class  as  to 
necessitate  the  attention  and  thought  of  every  pupil. 
It  is  not  possible  to  give  even  the  essential  elements  of 
a  skillful  class  exercise  in  a  brief  description  here.  It 
must  suffice  to  add  that  class  teaching  reaches  its  ideal 
only  when  all  the  pupils  are  attentive  and  active  from 
start  to  finish. 

A  skillful  class  exercise  will  necessarily  disclose  dif- 
ferences in  the  capacity  and  attainments  of  the  pupils ; 


CLASS  INSTRUCTION.  1 37 

and,  if  the  exercise  be  one  of  instruction  or  drill,  these 
individual  variations  may  readily  receive  needed  atten- 
tion. It  is  true  that  this  adaptation  of  a  class  individual 
exercise  to  individual  needs  will  require  on  Differences, 
the  teacher's  part  quickness  of  discernment  and  tact  in 
action,  but  these  are  important  elements  of  the  teaching 
art.  In  a  sense  all  the  pupils  of  the  class  must  be 
in  the  eye  of  the  teacher  and  each  an  open  book. 
Only  right  experience  in  teaching  can  develop  this 
power.  As  the  reading  of  the  printed  page  involves  a 
double  action,  one  of  the  eye,  which  takes  in  words  in 
groups  and  sentences,  and  the  other  of  the  mind,  the 
reading  of  the  thought,  so  skillful  class  teaching  in- 
volves attention  in  two  directions,  one  to  the  class  as 
a  unit,  the  other  to  the  individual  pupils. 

Since  all  teaching  is  the  occasionmg  of  right  activity 
in  the  learner,  it  follows  that  class  teaching  involves  the 
activity  of  individual  pupils  and  is  in  a  true  ^^^^^  j 
sense  individual  teaching.  The  only  possi-  struction 
ble  exception  is  an  exercise  in  which  the 
activity  of  the  pupils  is  automatic  and  mechanical. 
There  is  no  ground  for  the  assumption  that  only  in- 
struction limited  to  a  single  pupil  occasions  individual 
activity  and  learning.  It  is  possible  for  twenty  pupils 
in  a  class  to  receive  each  as  much  training  from  a  com- 
mon course  of  instruction  as  would  be  received  were 
each  pupil  taught  the  same  studies  alone  ;  and  this  is 
possible,  though  the  instruction  of  the  class  may  not  in 
all  its  details  be  so  well  adapted  to  individual  need  as 
would  be  true  in  teaching  a  single  pupil,  what  is  loss 
in  this  direction  being  more  than  made  good  by  gains 
in  other  directions.  We  are  thus  led  to  a  consideration 
of  the  advantages  of  class  teaching. 


138  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 


Merits  and  Advantages  of  Class  Teaching. 

Class  teaching  has  important  advantages,  and  this  is 

true  whether  the  exercise  be  a  lesson  or  a  recitation.^ 

In  class  instruction,  whatever  be  the  method, 

Advantages. 

each  pupil  is  benefited  by  the  participation 
of  other  pupils.  His  view  is  corrected  or  widened  by 
theirs,  and  from  their  point  of  view  he  gains  new  in- 
sights and  fuller  knowledge.  Their  grasp  of  what  is 
taught  quickens  his  mental  activity,  and  their  success 
stimulates  him  to  greater  effort.  The  mental  alertness 
of  a  group  of  pupils  under  stimulating  instruction  is  a 
matter  of  common  observation.  The  same  is  evident  in 
a  skillfully  conducted  drill.  A  glowing  enthusiasm  per- 
vades the  class.  The  successful  effort  of  one  becomes 
an  inspiring  example  for  the  others,  and  all  come  into 
the  helpful  spirit  of  cooperative  effort.^  Indeed,  the 
pupils  in  a  class  exercise  often  learn  from  each  other  as 
much  as  they  learn  from  the  teacher. 

Moreover,  the  cooperation  of  pupils  in  class  work  is 
Preparation    '^^'^   excellent   preparation    for   real   life.      It 
for  Life.      bcgcts  the  feeling  of  social  cooperation,  awak- 
ening  a   desire  to  do  what  others  are  doing,  and  the 

1  "  The  class  system  is  really  one  of  the  greatest  inventions  ever  made 
in  pedagogy.  A  class  recitation  is  a  great  means  of  instruction  ;  far  more 
potent  than  any  device  of  individual  instruction.  The  ideal  of  instruction 
is  not  the  private  tutor  with  his  single  pupil."  —  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  Pro- 
ceedings of  N.  E.  A.,  1895,  p.  407. 

2  The  wise  teacher  finds  large  advantage  in  group  teaching.  The  many- 
sided  friction  is  a  good  thing  for  the  child.  Class  exercises  are  a  tremen- 
dous impulse  in  forwarding  individual  children.  Individualism  tends  to  a 
loss  of  the  advantage  of  the  spirit  of  cooperative  effort.  Class  work  reen- 
forces  each  by  the  understanding  of  all  others." — Dr.  Richard  G.  Boone, 
Proceedings  of  N.  E.  A.,  1895,  P-  4°7- 


CLASS  INSTRUCTION.  1 39 

ambition  to  do  well  whatever  is  attempted.  The  pupil 
learns  to  measure  himself  by  others,  and  the  stimulus 
to  effort  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  he  is  doing  like 
work  under  like  conditions.  He  also  loses  in  good 
degree  the  fear  of  criticism,  and  thus  gains  the  power  of 
confident  effort  in  the  presence  of  others.  It  is  help- 
ful to  realize  early  that  others  also  make  mistakes  and 
come  short  in  effort.  It  is  evident  that  all  this  disci- 
pUne  makes  for  success  in  the  practical  duties  of  life. 

The  advantages  of  the  class  system  are  not  disproved 
or  met  by  citing  its  well-known   abuses,  such   as  the 
chaining  of  pupils  of  unequal  attainments  to-     y^^uses  of 
gether  from  term  to  term  ;  the  ignoring  of  in-     ciass  sys. 
dividual  attainments  and  needs  in  class  work  ;         *^'"' 
the  gauging  of  requirements  by  the  standard  of  the  aver- 
age pupil ;  the  sacrifice  of  the  individual  to  the  demands 
of  uniformity  and  system,  etc.     These  and  other  abuses 
of  the  class  system  certainly  need  correction,  but  hap- 
pily this  does  not   require   the   abandonment   of  class 
teaching.     Here  the  correction  of  abuses  does  not  in- 
volve the  abolition  of  uses.    What  is  needed  is  class  teach- 
ing that  skillfully  meets  individual  ability  and  needs. 

It  has  been  asserted  (p.  133)  that  the  adoption  of  the 
plan  of  teaching  pupils  in  all  branches  separately  as  in- 
dividuals would  destroy  the  modern  school.     ,  ,.  .,    . 

•'  Individual- 

It  is  not  meant  that  no  sort  of  a  school  is  ism  and  the 
possible  with  individual  instruction.  It  is,  of  school, 
course,  possible  to  place  a  few  pupils  under  a  teacher 
who  directs  in  a  general  way  their  activities,  and  gives 
to  each  such  personal  attention  as  may  be  feasible. 
The  writer  once  attended  a  private  school  of  twelve 
pupils  who  formed  over  thirty  so-called  classes,  and  he 
alone  formed  four  and,  for  a  part  of  the  term,  five  of 


140  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

these  classes.  More  than  half  of  all  the  exercises  in  that 
school  were  individual,  that  is,  with  a  single  pupil.  It 
was  not  possible  for  the  teacher  to  do  more  than  "  hear  " 
lessons  recited,  or  glance  at  work  done  and  assign  more. 
There  was  little  time  for  instruction.  It  was  necessarily 
a  poor  school,  and  most  of  the  pupils  made  very  little 
progress. 

There  are  thousands  of  rural  schools  in  the  United 

States  with  less  than  twelve  pupils  in  daily  attendance, 

Individual     and  while  few  of  these  schools  teach  so  many 

Instruction    brauchcs   as   the   private  school   referred  to 

in  Rural  _         '■ 

Schools.  above,  the  pupils  are  so  unequal  in  capacity 
and  attainment  that  group  instruction  is  not  practicable 
in  all  lessons.  Much  of  the  teaching  is  necessarily  indi- 
vidual, even  with  the  best  possible  classification.^  The 
experience  of  these  rural  schools  shows  that  the  best 
work  is  done  when  several  pupils  can  be  grouped  and 
taught  together.  The  improvement  of  the  rural  school 
has  been  largely  effected  by  a  better  classification. 

In    cities  and    towns  where  hundreds  of   pupils  are 

massed  in  the  same  building,  both  imperative  economy 

Individual     and  needed  efficiency  require  the  grading  of 

Instruction     ^^  pupils  and    their  instruction  in  classes. 

in  City  ^     ^ 

Schools.  The  writer  is  aware  that  it  is  claimed  by  the 
advocates  of  individualism  as  the  basis  of  the  school 
that  the  feasibility  of  individual  teaching  even  in  large 
schools  has  been  demonstrated  by  actual  experiment ; 
but  there  has  been  no  trial  of  the  plan  which  did  not 
play  fast  and  loose  with  the  principle  of  individualism. 
It  is  confidently  asserted  that  no  real  trial  of  individual 
teaching  in  large  schools  has  been  satisfactory  except 

^For  a  full  discussion  of  this  subject  see  "TheCountry  School  Problem" 
by  the  author,  published  by  the  American  Book  Company,  New  York. 


CLASS  INSTRUCTION.  I4I 

to  those  who  were  responsible  for  the  experiment. 
Most  of  the  so-called  trials  have  been  a  mixture  of 
individual  and  class  teaching,  class  teaching  being 
simply  supplemented  by  more  or  less  separate  individ- 
ual instruction.  There  is  in  every  elementary  school 
a  place  for  individual  assistance  and  work,  but  the  con- 
ditions that  make  such  special  individual  attention  neces- 
sary diminish  as  pupils  pass  up  in  the  grades. 

It  is  true  that  in  an  ideal  class  the  pupils  are  sup- 
posed to  be  of  equal  ability  and  attainments,  a  condi- 
tion  that  is  found  in    few,   if   any,   classes. 

-'  Unequal 

Even  when  pupils  are  of  nearly  equal  attain-  Progress  of 
ments  at  the  beginning  of  a  term,  they  soon  P"P'>s- 
work  apart  more  or  less.  This  unequal  progress  may  be 
due  to  unequal  ability,  to  varying  aptitudes  for  the  given 
study,  to  differences  in  physical  vigor,  to  unequal  home 
advantages,  to  absence,  etc.  This  unequal  progress  ne- 
cessitates reclassifications,  and  it  is  just  here  that  some 
of  the  most  serious  difficulties  in  the  class  system  appear, 
it  being  usually  necessary  to  reclassify  pupils  without 
increasing  the  number  of  classes. 

Fortunately,  the  necessity  of  like  attainments  by  the 
pupils  in  a  class  varies  much  with  the  nature  of  the 
studies.  In  the  more  scientific  and  logical  Degrees  of 
studies,  such  as  English  grammar,  arithmetic.  Equality, 
and  algebra,  low  attainments  in  the  more  elementary 
topics  and  processes  make  the  mastery  of  the  more 
advanced  very  difficult ;  but  in  several  of  the  school 
arts,  as  reading,  spelHng,  writing,  drawing,  and  language, 
equality  of  attainment  is  less  important.  Experience 
shows  that  pupils  who  may  be  a  year  apart  in  skill  in 
any  one  of  these  arts  may  be  successfully  taught  to- 
gether.    It  is  possible  to  make  class  instruction  even 


142  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

under  such  conditions  very  helpful  to  the  pupils,  much 
more  helpful  than  is  possible  when  a  school  is  broken 
into  fragments  of  classes  with  little  or  no  training.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  the  more  unequal  the  ability 
and  attainments  of  pupils  in  a  class,  the  larger  must  be 
the  element  of  individual  attention  and  the  higher  the 
teacher's  skill. 

It  is  freely  conceded  that  the  grading  and  classifying 
of  pupils  even  in  city  schools    are  beset  with    serious 

^    ,  ,       difficulties.     Nor   are   these  difficulties  fully 

Graded  -' 

School  Prob-  met  by  the  frequent  reclassification  of  pupils 
^^^'  by  promoting  the  more  advanced  pupils  in  a 
class,  and  uniting  them  with  the  more  backward  pupils 
in  the  next  higher  class.  It  is  easy  to  make  a  strong 
indictment  of  the  graded  system  as  it  was  formerly 
administered  in  many  cities  and  towns.  The  perfection 
and  running  of  the  system  as  such  have  often  so  ab- 
sorbed interest  that  the  fact  has  been  overlooked  that 
tJie  system  is  for  the  pupils,  and  not  the  pupils  for  the 
system.  The  graded  system  with  its  demands  for  uni- 
formity has  often  been  a  Moloch  appeased  only  by  the 
sacrifice  of  the  aptitudes,  needs,  and  interests  of  pupils 
as  individuals.  But  the  problems  of  the  graded  school 
are  receiving  most  earnest  attention,  and  in  the  past 
few  years  encouraging  progress  has  been  made  in  their 
practical  solution.  It  is  increasingly  seen  that  the 
graded  system  is  not  an  end  of  school  administration, 
but  only  a  means  to  an  end,  that  end  the  best  possible 
education  of  youth. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

TEACHING   PUPILS    IN   CLASSES. 

Much  that  is  said  in  Chapter  VIII.  on  the  testing  of 
pupils  applies  equally  to  the  other  teaching  processes. 
There  is  not  only  a  question  method  of  testing,  but  also 
a  question  method  of  instruction,  each  requiring  careful 
study  and  practice. 

It  is  helpful  to  see  that  in  teaching,  questions  have 
two  distinct  uses,  to  wit :  instruction  and  testing,  and 
hence  that  they  have  two  somewhat  distinct  forms  which 
are  characterized  by  the  terms  tcacliin<r  ques-     ^     ^. 

-'  i>    T  Teaching 

tions  and  test  questions,  the  term  teaching  and  Testing 
being  here  used  in  the  sense  of  instruction. 
In  instruction  the  aim  of  questions  is  to  direct  the  pupil's 
observations  in  the  study  of  objects  or  to  guide  his  think- 
ing in  the  study  of  subjects.  Whatever  the  aim  the 
questions  used  in  instruction  should  have  all  the  quali- 
ties essential  to  good  test  questions  ;  that  is,  they  should 
be  clear,  concise,  and  definite,  and,  in  addition,  they 
should  have  a  proper  sequence,  always  essential  in 
instruction,  but  not  so  important  in  testing.  The  essen- 
tial thing  in  a  test  exercise  is  that  the  questions  test 
what  is  vital  and  fundamental,  this  being  specially  true 
of  written  tests.  In  the  oral  test  or  recitation  it  is  also 
important  that  the  questions  or  topics  present  a  sys- 
tematic unfolding  of  the  subject,  as  previously  shown 

143 


144  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

(p.  107).  The  recitation  thus  conducted  serves  a  double 
purpose,  a  testing  and  also  a  clarifying  of  the  pupil's 
knowledge.  In  instruction  this  orderly  sequence  is  not 
only  important,  but  essential. 

It  is  not,  however,  important  for  our  present  purpose 
to  make  special  note  of  the  distinction  between  instruc- 
tion questions  and  test  questions,  or  even  between  les- 
sons and  recitations.  The  difficulties  involved  in  the 
Distribution  teaching  of  pupils  in  classes  lie  more  in  the 
of  Questions,  distribution  of  the  questions  or  topics  than  in 
the  questions  or  topics  themselves.  Indeed,  the  ques- 
tions or  topics  to  be  used  in  teaching  a  subject  have 
little  reference  to  the  number  of  pupils  taught.  They  are 
practically  the  same  whether  there  be  one  or  many  pupils. 
The  essential  thing  in  class  teaching  is  the  skillful  des- 
ignation of  the  pupils  who  successively  lead  in  the  study 
of  an  object  or  subject.  As  thus  stated  this  may  seem 
a  very  simple,  and,  possibly,  an  unimportant  matter,  but 
just  here  is  the  cause  of  the  failure  of  many  class  exer- 
cises. In  successful  class  teaching  the  pupils  who  recite 
are  so  designated  as  to  necessitate  the  nndivided  attention 
of  the  entire  class,  the  mental  activity  of  every  pnpil'. 
Whether  the  exercise  be  a  lesson  or  a  recitation,  it  must 
be  so  conducted  as  to  secure  these  results. 

Methods  of  Calling  on  Pupils. 

There  are  three  quite  distinct  methods  of  calling  on 

pupils  to  respond  to  questions  or  topics  in  a  class  exer- 

Three        cise.       lu    the    first,    called    the    consecutive 

Methods,      method,  the  pupils  recite  in  consecutive  order 

or  "  by  turn  "  ;    in  the  second,  called    the  proiniscnous 

method,  the  pupils  who  recite  are  designated  promiscu- 


TEACHING  PUPILS  IN  CLASSES.  1 45 

ously  by  the  teacher ;  and  in  the  third,  called  the  simtil- 
taneous  or  concert  method,  the  pupils  recite  simultane- 
ously or  "in  concert."  Let  us  study  each  of  these 
methods  to  learn  its  advantages  and  defects,  and  also  its 
proper  use  in  class  work.  It  will  not  be  necessary  in 
this  study  to  limit  the  method  under  consideration  to  a 
given  teaching  process  or  to  a  given  class  exercise. 
Practically  the  principles  to  be  observed  in  calling  on 
pupils  in  a  recitation  will  apply  with  slight  modification 
to  a  lesson,  and  vice  versa} 

I.   The  Consecutive  Method. 

This  is  probably  the  earliest  and  most  widely  used  of 
the  methods  named.  It  is  still  the  prevailing  method  in 
many  schools.      Nor  is  this  early  and  wide  ns 

use  of  the  method  wholly  without  reason.  Advantages. 
It  has  several  obvious  advantages  which  commend  it  to 
the  favor  of  teachers,  and  especially  to  those  who  have 
never  carefully  considered  its  defects. 

The  first  of  these  advantages  noted  is  rapidity.  The 
reasons  are  obvious.  The  special  designation  of  the 
pupils  to  recite  takes  some  time  and  there  is 

1  1        ...         ,  1  Rapidity. 

more  or  less  hesitation  in  the  response ;  but 
when  pupils  recite  in  turn  little  time  is  lost.  The  pupils 
know  when  they  are  to  recite  and  are  ready  to  respond 
promptly.  The  time  to  recite  is  a  certainty  and  the 
pupils  are  alert.  Experience  shows  that  more  questions 
can  be  asked  and  answered  in  a  given  time  by  the  con- 
secutive method  than  is  possible  when  the  pupils  to 
recite  are  designated  by  the  teacher. 

1  In  pages  145-151  the  author  has  made  free  use  of  his  treatment  of 
the  same  subject  in  the  "  Elements  of  Pedagogy." 
ART  OF  TEACHING  —  lO 


146  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

Another  advantage  of  the  method  is  the  fact  that  it 
is  easy  for  the  teacher.  He  is  reheved  of  the  labor  in- 
Easy  for  volved  in  selecting  and  designating  the  pupils 
Teacher,  ^-q  recite ;  and,  in  test  exercises,  his  labor  is 
thus  reduced  to  asking  questions  or  assigning  topics 
and  then  determining  the  correctness  of  the  pupils' 
answers  or  responses.  The  recitation  may  proceed  as 
regularly  and  about  as  mechanically  as  clock-work. 
The  same  is  true  in  drill  exercises. 

Another  advantage  of  the  turn  method  is  the  fact  that 
all  the  pupils  have  an  opportunity  of  reciting.  The  pupils 
»„  ..      ^      respond  consecutively  and  no  one  is  omitted. 

All  have  Op-  ^      _  _  ^ 

portunity  to  This  is  an  important  advantage  in  class  work 
and  especially  in  recitations  that  test  the 
results  of  study.  Few  pupils  will  thoroughly  prepare 
lessons  if  there  is  even  a  probability  that  they  will  not 
be  called  on  to  recite.  The  writer  has  known  classes 
in  which  it  often  happened  that  most  of  the  pupils  did 
not  have  an  opportunity  to  recite  for  several  successive 
days.  The  result  was  a  loss  of  interest  on  the  part  of 
the  omitted  pupils  and  a  resulting  neglect  of  study. 
The  most  faithful  study  is  secured  when  every  recitation 
tests  the  preparation  of  every  pupil  in  the  class. 

The  foregoing  advantages  of  the  consecutive  method 

are  more  than  offset  by  its  failure  to  necessitate  close  and 

universal  attention.     The  pupil  reciting  and 

Failure  to  I      1  t> 

Necessitate  possibly  the  onc  who  has  the  next  "turn" 
Attention.  y(\\\<s>x.  give  attcutiott,  but  the  other  pupils  are 
not  obliged  to  do  so.  As  soon  as  a  pupil  has  recited,  he 
can  go  a-fishing  mentally  until  his  turn  comes  again.  It 
is  true  that  a  skillful  teacher  may  so  interest  his  class  in 
the  lesson  as  to  secure  general  attention,  but  this  is  not 
a  result  of  the  turn  method.      Universal  attention  is 


TEACHING   PUPILS   IN  CLASSES.  1 47 

secured  not  in  consequence  of  the  method  but  in  spite 
of  it.  The  failure  of  the  method  to  secure  close  atten- 
tion results  in  its  failure  to  occasion  the  continued  men- 
tal activity  of  all  the  pupils,  the  ideal  of  a  skillful  class 
exercise.  Just  to  the  extent  that  a  class  exercise  fails 
to  occasion  the  universal  activity  of  the  class,  just  to 
that  extent  it  fails  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  pupils. 
A  true  class  exercise  is  a  continued  mental  gymnastic 
to  all  the  pupils. 

Another  weakness  of  the  consecutive  method,  as 
generally  used,  is  the  fact  that  it  permits  a  partial 
preparation  of  the  lesson,  a  weakness  that  Partial 
appears  most  commonly  in  book  lessons,  but  Preparation, 
it  may  exist  in  other  lessons.  The  pupils  near  the  foot 
of  the  class  are  tempted  to  neglect  the  part  of  the  lesson 
which  is  to  be  recited  by  the  pupils  near  the  head,  and 
vice  versa.  In  the  old-time  school  the  pupils  read  in 
turn  one  "  verse  "  each,  and  it  was  a  common  practice 
for  the  pupils  to  count  the  verses  and  then  study  only 
the  verse  which  they  would  read.  This  practice  still 
exists  not  only  in  schools,  but  even  in  some  colleges 
which  use  the  turn  method.  As  a^nde,  pupils  will 
prepare  most  faithfully  that  portion  of  the  lesson  which 
they  expect  to  recite,  and  the  turn  method  may  permit 
this  expectation.  It  is  true  that  this  partial  preparation 
may  be  obviated  by  the  teacher's  not  following  the  order 
of  the  text-book,  but  this  may  interfere  with  the  proper 
unfolding  of  the  subject. 

This  difficulty  may,  however,  be  effectively  remedied 
by  having  the  recitifig  begin  from  day  to  day  at  different 
points  in  the  class.    If  the  exercise  begins  with 

/-r  1  -1  Remedy. 

the  fifth  pupil  one  day,  the  tenth  pupil  the  next 

day,  the  third  pupil  the  next  day,  and  so  on,  no  pupil 


148  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

can  even  guess,  when  preparing  a  lesson,  what  portion 
of  it  will  fall  to  him  to  recite,  and  so  he  is  safe  only 
when  he  has  prepared  the  entire  lesson.  It  is  surprising 
that  teachers  who  use  the  turn  method  have  not  more 
generally  seen  the  efficiency  of  this  simple  device  in 
preventing  the  partial  preparation  of  lessons.  The 
device  works  best  when  all  the  pupils  of  a  class  recite 
daily. 

Another  weakness  of  the  consecutive  method  is  the 
fact  that  it prevc7its  the  most  tJioroiigh  testing  of  a  class, 
Thorough  a-  weakness  that  more  specially  appears  in 
Testing,  recitations.  The  tests  which  by  turn  fall  to 
the  pupils  successively  may  not  be  those  which  would 
best  disclose  their  knowledge  of  the  subject.  The 
revolving  exercise  may  bring  to  an  idle  pupil  the  only 
question  or  topic  which  he  can  recite,  and  he  may  thus 
be  tempted  to  trust  to  luck  next  time,  the  idle  being  as 
a  class  very  easily  tempted  in  this  direction.  The  highest 
efficiency  of  a  recitation  depends  largely  on  a  skillful 
distribution  of  its  tests. 

2.   The  Promiscuous  Method. 

A  study  of  the  promiscuous  method  of  calling  on  pupils 
in  class  exercises  shows  that  its  merits  and  defects  are 
respectively  the  inverse  of  those  of  the  consecutive 
method.  It  is  weak  where  the  consecutive  method 
is  strong,  and  strong  where  the  consecutive  method  is 
weak.    Its  great  merit  is  the  fact  that  it  secures 

Great    Merit.  ,    ,     ,  ,        7  •  n.      11      i  -r       ■ 

and  holds  the  attention  of  all  the  pnpils  in  a 
class.  It  is  true  that  this  result  depends  somewhat  on 
the  skill  of  the  teacher,  but  the  method  both  permits 
and  favors  the  highest  success. 


TEACHING  PUPILS  IN   CLASSES.  1 49 

When  skillfully  used,  the  method  necessitates  close 
and  universal  attention.  When  a  question  or  topic  is 
announced,  every  pupil  in  the  class  is  obliged 

11.  1     Skillful  Use. 

to  be  on  the  alert  as  he  may  be  designated 
to  respond.  He  must  also  give  close  attention  to  the 
pupil  reciting,  since  at  any  moment  he  may  be  called 
upon  to  correct  an  error,  supply  an  omission,  or  take 
up  and  complete  the  recitation.  The  frequent  caUing 
on  pupils  to  complete  the  recitation  of  another,  taking 
it  up  precisely  at  the  right  point,  is  a  most  effective 
device  for  necessitating  close  attention  and  the  continued 
mental  activity  of  all  the  pupils.  This  may  be  readily 
done  in  exercises  in  arithmetic,  particularly  in  the  oral 
solution  of  mental  problems,  in  reading,  history,  phys- 
iology, and  other  branches.  The  writer  has  witnessed 
many  a  class  exercise  which  easily  held  the  attention  of 
all  the  pupils,  obUging  every  one  to  do  mentally  the 
work  of  the  pupils,  reciting. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  this  advantage  of  the  promiscu- 
ous method  may  be  wholly  lost  by  designating  the  pupil 
to  recite  before  aiinoniicing  the  question  or  Mistake  in 
topic,  a  practice  still  too  common  in  schools  "^*- 
and  colleges.  It  ought  to  be  evident  that  the  calling  on 
the  pupil  before  the  topic  is  announced  relieves  all  the 
other  pupils  in  the  class  from  the  necessity  of  giving 
it  attention,  while  the  announcing  of  the  topic  Jirst 
brings  it  home  to  every  pupil.  Every  one  must  be 
ready  to  take  it  and,  to  make  this  result  certain,  there 
should  not  be  even  a  prior  glance  at  the  pupil  to  be  called 
on  to  respond. 

A  class  exercise  may  thus  be  made  a  fine  mental  drill, 
an  excellent  mental  gymnastic.  Suppose,  for  example, 
that  a  class  in  arithmetic,  containing  say  twenty  pupils, 


150  THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 

solves  twenty  problems  in  an  exercise.  If  the  exer- 
cise   is    so   conducted    that   each   pupil  solves  but  one 

Mental  problcm,  the  exercise  will  necessitate  but 
Gymnastic,  fivciity  mental  solutions.  If  the  exercise  is 
so  conducted  as  to  oblige  each  pupil  in  the  class  to  solve 
mentally  all  of  the  twenty  problems,  it  will  necessitate 
four  Jiundred  mental  solutions.  The  difference  in  the 
training  value  of  the  two  exercises  is  evident.  It  is  true 
that  the  making  of  a  class  exercise  such  as  mental  drill 
requires  high  skill ;  but  this,  let  us  repeat,  is  a  necessary 
attainment  in  all  successful  teaching. 

The  promiscuous  method  also  permits  a  proper  distri- 

bntioji  of  questions  or  topics.     These  can  be  thrown  just 

where  they  will  prove  the  most  effective  and 

Proper  Dis-  -i  '■ 

tribution  of  do  the  most  good.  The  idle  pupil  may  be 
Questions,  gjygj^  Opportunity  to  show  the  consequences 
of  his  idleness ;  the  pupil  who  was  assisted  yesterday 
may  be  called  on  to  recite  in  review ;  any  lack  of  atten- 
tion may  be  instantly  corrected,  etc.  Indeed,  the  lesson 
may  be  so  distributed  as  not  only  to  keep  all  pupils  alert 
and  active,  but  also  to  give  each  needed  opportunity  to 
participate  in  the  exercise,  a  very  important  matter. 

But  while  the  promiscuous  method  permits  the  best 

possible  distribution  of  class  work,  it  does  not  necessi- 

„.,,.  tate  such  distribution.     This  depends  on  the 

Fitting  ^ 

Questions  fidelity  and  skill  of  the  teacher.  An  intelli- 
upi  s.  gent  teacher  usually  knows  in  advance  the 
pupils  who  can  answer  his  questions,  and  this  makes 
possible  the  fitting  of  pupils  to  questions  or  questions 
to  pupils.  The  teacher  may  be  assisted  in  this  fitting 
process  by  having  the  pupils  who  can  answer  raise  the 
hand.  There  need  be  very  few  failures  in  a  class  when 
this  bad  device  is   used.     In  many  classes  the   hand- 


TEACHING  PUPILS  IN  CLASSES.  151 

raisers  do  nearly  all  the  class  work  to  the  detriment  of 
the  other  pupils.  Dull  pupils  may  also  be  purposely 
omitted,  this  being  most  likely  to  occur  when  visitors 
are  present,  as  in  public  examinations.  The  tempta- 
tion on  such  occasions  to  call  only  on  the  brightest 
pupils  is  too  strong  for  many  weak  teachers  to  resist, 
and  for  this  reason  the  public  exercises  in  schools  are 
sometimes  worse  than  shams.  Nor  is  this  sham  work 
limited  to  class  exercises.  It  is  too  common  in  school 
exhibits. 

Moreover,  the  unskillful  distribution  of  class  work  is 
often  due  to  habit.  Many  teachers  unconsciously  assign 
most  of  the  reciting  to  a  few  pupils,  almost 

^  i      i         '  Unequal 

wholly  omitting  the  others,  often  the  very  ParUci- 
pupils  who  most  need  to  participate  in  class  p^tjon- 
work.  Easy  teachers  are  quite  apt  to  assign  the  more 
difficult  questions  or  topics  to  the  brighter  pupils,  and 
the  easier  to  the  backward.  On  the  contrary,  a  severe 
teacher  is  liable  to  fall  into  the  opposite  habit  of  over- 
whelming the  dull  and  backward  with  the  difficulties  of 
the  lesson  and  most  of  the  reciting. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  it  requires  no 
small  degree  of  skill  to  conduct  a  class  exercise  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  secure  the  close  attention  of  suiii 
pupils  and  at  the  same  time  to  distribute  Needed, 
class  work  properly.  While  these  necessary  results  can 
be  attained  only  by  insight  and  skill,  teachers  may  be 
greatly  assisted  by  the  use  of  proper  devices.  Indeed, 
the  need  of  such  assistance  has  been  so  widely  felt  that 
various  devices  have  been  invented  for  that  purpose. 

One  of  these  is  to  write  the  name  or  number  of  each 
pupil  in  the  class  on  a  small  card,  as  many  cards  being 
used  as  there  are  pupils.     At  each  exercise,  the  cards 


152 


THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 


are  mixed  and  dropped  in  a  box,  or  put  in  a  pile  on  the 
teacher's  table.  The  pupils  to  recite  are  selected  by 
taking  cards  from  the  box  or  pile.  The  writer 
obtained  this  device  from  Horace  Mann.  It 
works  very  well  in  advanced  classes  with  long  recita- 
tions, provided  the  teacher  freque^itly  takes  a  card  from 
those  already  used,  thus  holding  the  attention  of  those 
who  have  recited.  It  is,  however,  a  poor  device  for 
use  in  class  instruction  in  elementary  schools. 


Broivn 


Fell 


Another  device  is  to  put  the  names  or  numbers  of 
the  pupils  in  the  class  on  one  card,  arranging  the  same 
Geometrical    i^i  the  form  of  somc  geometrical   figure,  as 

Figure.  shown  in  the  diagram  above.  This,  as  is 
seen,  will  permit  the  calling  of  the  names  or  numbers 


TEACHING  PUPILS  IN  CLASSES.  153 

on  successive  days  ///  different  orders.  The  writer  devised 
and  used  this  plan  years  ago  with  satisfaction.  It  leaves 
the  teacher  free  to  sit  or  stand  during  the  exercise,  and 
to  occupy  different  positions  in  the  room.  When  the 
exercise  closes,  the  teacher  knows  what  pupils,  if  any, 
have  been  omitted ;  and,  by  frequently  calling  on  pupils 
zvitJiout  reference  to  the  card,  the  attention  of  the  entire 
class  is  easily  held.  In  large  classes  numbers  are  more 
convenient  than  names. 

In  later  practice  in  college  and  as  an  examiner  of 
teachers,  the  writer  has  been  able  to  call  numbers  pro- 
miscuously without  the  use  of  a  card ;  as  3,     caiung  by 

6,  9,    12,    15,     18,    etc.;     I,    4,    7,     10,     13,    16,    19,        Numbers. 

etc.;  2,  5,  8,  II,  14,  17,  20,  etc.  By  frequently  calling 
numbers  already  called  undivided  attention  is  easily  held. 
Since  the  consecutive  and  promiscuous  methods  sup- 
plement each  other,  the  easiest  plan  of  avoiding  their 
respective  defects  is  to  combine  tJicni.  This  union  of 
may  be  done  by  permitting  pupils  to  recite  Methods, 
by  turn  except  when  the  teacher  designates  another 
pupil.  If  these  exceptions  are  sufficiently  frequent,  the 
attention  of  the  class  may  be  as  universally  held  as 
by  the  promiscuous  method  alone.  The  most  skillful 
teacher  of  oral  spelling  that  we  have  ever  known,  com- 
bined these  methods.  The  words  passed  rapidly  down 
her  class  except  when  she  "threw"  words  pronounced 
to  other  pupils,  and  this  was  done  so  frequently  and 
skillfully  that  no  pupil  felt  safe  in  taking  his  eyes  from 
the  teacher.  When  the  exercise  closed,  every  pupil  had 
recited,  and  the  poor  spellers  and  the  listless  had  re- 
ceived special  attention.  This  plan  may  be  used  in  all 
oral  drills,  and  a  little  practice  will  enable  any  skillful 
teacher  to  use  it  with  success. 


154  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

3.   The  Simultaneous  Method. 

The  weakness  of  the  simultaneous,  or  concert,  method 
as  a  test  (p.  100)  is  also  manifest  when  it  is  used  in  a 
Weakness  drill  cxercisc  or  in  class  instruction.  The 
of  Method,  responses  of  the  class  may  be  led  by  a  few 
pupils,  even  by  one  pupil,  and  the  others  may  mechan- 
ically follow ;  and  all  this  may  be  done  in  such  a  way 
as  to  make  it  difficult  to  detect  either  the  leadership  or 
the  following,  as  shown  in  the  chorus  test  in  singing  on 
page  loi.  Teachers  are  not  only  deceived  respecting 
the  knowledge  and  skill  of  their  pupils,  but,  what  is 
possibly  worse,  they  sadly  overestimate  their  own  suc- 
cess in  class  teaching.  They  accept  the  confident  and 
often  glib  responses  of  their  classes  in  concert  as  evi- 
dence that  the  individual  pupils  actually  know  what 
they  are  saying  together.  How  often  are  teachers  who 
use  the  concert  method  surprised  at  the  disclosures  of 
ignorance  made  by  written  tests  or  by  the  oral  testing 
of  individual  pupils.  It  was  this  disclosure  that  exploded 
the  once  famous  Lancaster  system  of  teaching. 

It  is  not  what  the  teacher  says  or  does  in  a  class  exer- 
cise that  tells,  but  what  the  pupils  learn  ;  and  pupils  can 

Limited  learn  only  by  their  own  activity  (p.  33).  As 
Use.  already  noted,  the  concert  response  may  some- 
times be  used  with  good  results  in  class  exercises.  It 
may  be  occasionally  employed  to  awaken  interest  and 
arouse  attention ;  also  to  fix  a  truth,  and  especially  its 
exact  statement,  in  the  memory.  It  may  be  used  in 
drills  in  singing,  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  reading. 
When  a  sentence  is  clearly  understood,  there  may  some- 
times be  an  advantage  in  having  a  class  give  vocal  ex- 
pression to  the  thought  in  concert.  It  is  sometimes 
possible  to  secure  a  free   and    clear   expression    of   a 


TEACHING  PUPILS  IN   CLASSES.  I  55 

thought,  not  otherwise  easily  secured  from  some  of  the 
pupils.  The  voices  of  other  pupils  not  only  guide  and 
support  the  timid  and  hesitating,  but,  what  is  more  im- 
portant, they  are  thus  inspired  with  confidence,  and  can 
do  their  best,  as  in  the  singing  of  difficult  music.  But 
the  concert  exercise  should  be  very  sparingly  used  even 
in  reading,  and  it  should  always  be  supplemented  by  the 
individual  drill  or  test. 

But  the  concert  method  has  been  so  widely  and  sadly 
abused  in  American  schools  that  it  seems  wise  to  dis- 
countenance its  use  altogether.  The  writer  Abuse  of 
has  visited  primary  schools  in  which  the  les-  Method, 
sons  in  reading  and  spelling,  tables  of  numbers,  of 
weights  and  measures,  etc.,  were  recited  not  only  in 
concert,  but  in  sing-song,  quasi-musical  tones,  distress- 
ing to  the  ear  and  stupefying  to  the  mind.  There  is  no 
speedier  way  for  reducing  a  bright  child  to  stupidity 
than  a  vigorous  use  of  humdrum  concert  drills.  A  few 
years  ago  a  friend  who  had  musical  gifts  visited  the 
primary  schools  in  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  the  coun- 
try, and  indicated  the  tones  used  in  different  concert 
exercises  by  a  semi-musical  notation !  It  is  a  pleasure 
to  add  that  the  stupid  concert  drill  is  disappearing  from 
American  schools.  The  change  in  this  direction  in  the 
last  twenty  years  is  very  gratifying. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  add  that  much  concert  recit- 
ing injures  the  voice,  both  for  speaking  and  singing. 
The  resulting  "primary  tone,"  as  it  has  been  ..^^6  ph- 
called,  is  still  often  heard  in  the  pulpit  and  '"^■'y  Tone." 
at  the  bar,  and  much  of  the  drilHng  in  reading  in  the 
upper  grades  of  school  aims  to  overcome  and  remove 
the  bad  habits  acquired  in  the  lower.  If  concert  exer- 
cises are  ever  employed,  special  pains  should  be  taken 


156  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

to  keep  the  tones  natural  and  pleasant.  The  boisterous, 
discordant  yelling,  which  is  encouraged  in  too  many- 
schools  as  singing,  is  injurious  to  the  singing  voice, 
and  subversive  of  musical  taste.  There  should  be  in- 
creasing attention  given  in  elementary  schools  to  the 
quality  of  children's  voices  both  in  reading  and  singing. 


It  seems  proper  to  add  that  the  teaching  of  pupils  in 
classes  is  an  art  of  the  highest  practical  importance  in 
Class  Teach-  school  work,  and  it  should  receive  special 
ing  an  Art.  attention  in  all  courses  of  normal  training. 
It  is  not  enough  that  young  teachers  learn  the  art  of 
developing  or  presenting  subjects.  They  must  also 
learn  the  art  of  distributing  subjects  and  work  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  meet  the  conditions  of  successful  class 
teaching.  The  class  exercises  in  the  normal  school 
should  be  fit  models  for  the  young  teacher  to  study,  if 
not  to  copy.  It  is  one  thing  to  talk  to  a  school  or 
class,  but  it  is  another  thing  to  teach  a  school  or  class. 

The  writer  has  witnessed  class  instruction  in  several 
normal  institutes  in  the  west  in  which  not  one  fifth  of 

Class  the  pupils,  and  these  teachers,  made  any 
Teaching  in  j-esponse  to  qucstious,  even  when  permitted 
Institutes,  to  answcr  in  concert,  for  the  obvious 
reason  that  most  of  them  were  not  able  to  give  intelli- 
gent answers.  In  several  instances  text-book  lessons 
had  been  assigned  for  study,  and  the  attempt  was  made 
to  give  the  exercise  the  form  of  a  recitation,  but  the 
result  was  a  nondescript  exercise  in  which  several  things 
were  attempted  and  nothing  done  well.  Nor  were  the 
instructors  wholly  without  excuse,  for  the  conditions 
were  against  them.  The  teachers  in  the  institute  were 
too    crowded  with  work  and   their  attention  too  much 


TEACHING  PUPILS  IN  CLASSES.  157 

dissipated  by  the  social  life  surrounding  them  to  prepare 
the  lessons  assigned.  Recitations  under  such  conditions 
are  not  practicable,  and,  so  far  as  teachers  under  training 
accept  this  poor  class  teaching  as  a  model  and  repeat  it 
in  the  schools,  such  class  work  is  a  positive  harm.  We 
are  fully  satisfied  that  teaching  in  the  schools  Bad 
is  lowered  in  efficiency  by  the  bad  examples  influence, 
of  class  work  often  found  in  teachers'  institutes,  and  so- 
called  normal  classes.  It  would  be  far  better  for  the 
instructor  to  develop  the  subjects  taught  without  any 
reference  to  book  study,  and  then  by  reproductions  and 
reviews  fix  what  is  fundamental  and  important  in  the 
memory  (p.  113);  and  in  these  genuine  lessons  every 
member  of  the  institute  can  be  reached  and  held  to  close 
attention  and  active  work.  The  normal  institute  should 
never  be  lowered  to  the  task  of  assisting  poor  scholars  to 
pass  examinations  for  a  teacher's  certificate.^ 

^  The  attempt  to  make  a  teachers'  institute  a  school  for  academic  in- 
struction is  one  extreme  in  institute  management,  and  the  making  an 
institute  a  place  of  amusement  and  social  enjoyment  with  "  inspiration  " 
speeches  is  another  extreme.  As  the  writer  recently  stepped  before  a 
teachers'  institute  to  give  his  second  lesson,  the  young  county  superinten- 
dent whispered  to  him,  "  Work  in  a  story  or  a  joke  to  make  them  laugh. 
Teachers  like  a  good  laugh."  Before  the  second  day  closed  this  superin- 
tendent found  that  his  teachers  could  be  deeply  interested  in  thoughtful, 
clean-cut  instruction,  dealing  practically  and  helpfully  with  their  duties 
as  teachers.  The  "joke"  business  possesses  too  many  institutes.  The 
following  outhne  of  a  performance  on  the  "  Teaching  of  Arithmetic," 
recently  heard  in  an  institute,  is  not  an  extravagant  caricature : 

Condemn  with  ridicule  prevailing  methods  and  results.  Tell  a  funny 
story  to  get  up  interest.  Dip  into  the  "  Philosophy  of  Number."  Wake 
up  audience  with  a  laugh-raising  joke.  Try  the  pathetic  ;  recite  several 
stanzas  of  "  Little  Boy  Blue."  Touch  on  teachers'  salaries  (always  practi- 
cal arithmetic  !).  Tell  how  Eugene  Field  "got  a  raise"  in  his  salary. 
Announce  continuance  of  arithmetic  in  next  lesson.  Work  up  a  perora- 
tion on  —  anything,  ending  with  a  side-splitting  joke.  Leave  platform 
slowly  amid  applause. 


158  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

This  poor  class  teaching  is  seen  in  abundance  in  the 
schools,  not  only  in  elementary  schools  but  also  in  high 
Poor  Class  schools  and  colleges.  The  writer  has  seen 
Teaching,  scorcs  of  Icssons  givcu  to  a  room  full  of  pupils 
responding  in  concert,  in  which  only  a  few  of  the  bright- 
est pupils  were  really  following  the  leader.  The  other 
pupils  were  mechanically  following  the  bright  pupils, 
repeating  after  them,  so  far  as  they  recited  at  all.  It 
was  instruction  fired  at  a  class,  so  far  as  it  had  an  aim, 
but  was  not  class  instruction.  Nor  is  this  faulty  class 
work  to  be  charged  wholly  to  the  "grade  teachers,"  but 
superintendents  taking  the  classes  from  their  teachers 
sometimes  make  even  a  worse  botch  of  class  handling. 
There  are  many  experienced  teachers  who  cannot 
teach  a  class  with  success.  They  can  develop  and  pre- 
sent subjects,  it  may  be,  but  they  cannot  put  these  sub- 
jects properly  before  pupils  in  a  class.  Our  observations 
raise  the  fear  that  in  many  schools  effective  class  teach- 
ing is  a  "  lost  art,"  if  it  were  ever  acquired.  There  is 
certainly  much  very  poor  class  work  in  schools  and  also 
in  colleges. 

It  is  not  claimed  that  all  school  exercises  should  con- 
form to  the  standards  set  up  in  preceding  pages.  There 
Inspiration  ^re  occasious  in  every  school  when  inspira- 
Exercises.  ^Jq^  is  more  important  than  instruction  ;  when 
a  vital  need  of  pupils  is  to  get  at  least  a  gUmpse  of  fields 
of  knowledge  too  remote  to  be  definitely  surveyed  and 
studied.  The  interest  kindled  by  such  glimpses  is  car- 
ried into  exercises  which  aim  at  more  definite  results, 
and  the  entire  mental  life  of  the  school  may  be  thus 
quickened.  Nor  is  it  urged  that  personal  influence  and 
power  may  be  superseded  by  skill  in  teaching  processes. 
In  all  school  work  the  personahty  of  the  teacher  is  a 


TEACHING  PUPILS  IN  CLASSES.  I  59 

vital  factor.  But  there  is  no  disharmony  between  per- 
sonal power  and  teaching  skill.  The  one  does  not  exclude 
the  other.  On  the  contrary,  both  are  essential  to  the 
highest  success  in  teaching.  The  greater  the  personal 
resources  of  the  teacher  the  better,  but  they  cannot 
remove  the  necessity  of  skill  in  teaching  processes. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 
WRITTEN    EXERCISES. 

One  of  the  marked  changes  in  school  training  in  the 
past  forty  years  is  the  wide  use  of  the  pencil  and  pen  by 
pupils.  This  change  has  occurred  not  only  in  the  higher 
grades  of  school,  but  increasingly  in  elementary  schools. 
Writing  in  some  form  now  accompanies  and  largely 
enters  into  school  training  in  reading,  spelling,  language, 
and  nearly  all  other  branches. 

The  slate  and  pencil  have  long  been  used  for  the  solu- 
tion of  examples  and  problems  in  arithmetic  and  alge- 

Pen  and      bra,  and  later  the  slate  and  pencil  have  been 

Pencil.  supplemented  by  the  blackboard  and  crayon, 
increasingly  in  class  exercises.  The  pen  was  early  used 
in  exercises  in  writing  and  the  pencil  in  drawing.  The 
memory  of  teachers  runs  not  back  of  the  practice  of 
learning  to  write  by  writing  and  to  draw  by  drawing. 

The  movement  for  a  wider  use  of  pen  and  pencil  in 
school  work  began  in  the  substitution  of  written  for  oral 

Written      tcsts,  this  being  soon  followed  by  the  use  of 

Tests.  the  written  method  of  teaching  spelling.  The 
wide  use  of  written  tests  was  due  to  their  obvious  advan- 
tage in  determining  the  attainments  of  pupils  in  large 
classes,  especially  their  knowledge  or  rather  its  formal 
statement ;  and  also  to  the  assumed  importance  of  some 
uniform  testing  as  a  basis  for  the  classification  of  pupils. 
Written  examinations  as  a  basis  for  the  promotion  and 

1 60 


WRITTEN  EXERCISES.  l6l 

classification  of  pupils  soon  became  the  almost  universal 
practice  in  graded  schools.  This  led  to  written  methods 
of  preparing  and  reciting  lessons,  especially  in  large 
classes,  and  about  the  only  branch  in  which  it  was  not 
used  was  vocal  music,  and  in  some  schools  there  were 
written  examinations  in  music.  It  has  been  increasingly 
assumed  in  teaching  that  American  children  are  dinnb. 

This  general  use  of  the  pen  and  pencil  in  elementary 
schools  naturally  resulted  in  the  earlier  teaching  of  writ- 
ing. At  first  print  was  used  in  the  lower  Eariy  writ- 
grades,  but  in  time  this  was  generally  dis-  '"^' 
placed  by  the  use  of  script  from  the  very  beginning. 
The  old-time  school  assumed  that  young  children  have 
not  the  physical  ability  to  learn  to  write  a  "  fine  hand," 
and  so  the  child's  first  practice  was  in  making  "  pot- 
hooks," these  leading  to  a  coarse  round  hand.  It  took 
several  school  terms  to  reach  an  attempt  to  write  an 
ordinary  hand.  It  was,  however,  found  by  trial  that 
even  first-year  pupils  can  be  trained  to  write  script  of 
ordinary  size  from  the  first  (What  cannot  young  children 
be  trained  to  do.''),  and  so  the  more  "progressive" 
schools  put  infants  to  writing  "  like  men  and  women," 
and  other  schools  took  up  the  new  practice.  The  skill 
in  writing  thus  early  acquired  was  soon  utilized  in  many 
ways  in  primary  instruction,  and  even  formal  written 
exercises  were  imposed  upon  pupils  in  the  very  lowest 
grades. 

It  is  a  most  interesting  fact  that  physiological  research 
in  the  department  of  child  study  has  come  to  the  sup- 
port   of    the    pothook    assumption    of    the    old-    Testimony  of 

time  school ;  and  so  it  appears  that  on  this  Physiology. 
point  the  old-time  t'^achers  were  wiser  in  their  day  and 
generation  than  the  later  reformers  of  primary  instruc- 

ART  OF  TEACHING  —  1 1 


1 62  THE  ART  OF   TEACHING. 

tion.  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall  claims  to  have  demonstrated 
that  the  ancillary  muscles  of  the  hand  and  fingers  used 
in  writing  are  not  sufificiently  developed  in  young  chil- 
dren for  writing  a  fine  hand,  or  for  fine  needlework,  and 
that  their  nervous  systems  are  injured  by  too  fine  work 
in  the  kindergarten  and  primary  school. 

Then  here  comes  the  so-called  "philosophy  "  of  ver- 
tical writing  with  strong  condemnation  of  the  early  use 
Vertical  of  the  slant  script,  which  has  so  long  been 
Writing.  the  joy  of  "up-to-date"  primary  teachers.  It 
is  surprising  what  evils  are  now  charged  to  slant  writing 
in  the  schools  and  what  reliefs  are  promised  from  the 
substitution  of  vertical  writing.  All  this  raises  the  sus- 
picion that  the  evils  of  the  "  writing  habit  "  may  not  be 
altogether  due  to  the  slant  of  the  letters,  and  it  is  not  at 
all  certain  that  vertical  writing  will  afford  the  desired 
relief.  It  is  more  probable  that  these  evils  are  due  to 
too  early  and  too  viucJi  ivTiting  in  elementary  schools. 

This  brings  us  face  to  face  with  what  is  believed  to 
be  a  serious  evil  in  the  modern  school,  to  wit :  an  exces- 
Excessive     sive  Ksc  of  tJic  pen  and  pencil,  especially  in 
p"rand       lower  elementary  schools.     It  is  the  opinion 
Pencil.       of    many   thoughtful   observers   that   young 
pupils,  especially  in  the  graded  schools  in  cities,  spend 
too  much  time  on  written  work.    On  this  point  intelligent 
teachers  ought  not  to  need  the  aid  of  experts  in  child 
physiology  to  see  that  the  amount  of  pen  and  pencil 
work  done  by  their  young  pupils  is  a  serious  tax  on  the 
nervous  system,  and  that  their  cramped  and  unnatural 
positions  when  doing  such  work  interfere  with  the  free 
action  of  the  lungs  and  other  vital  organs.     In  the  reg- 
ular writing  and  drawing  lessons  some  attention  is  usu- 
ally given  to  the  posture  of  pupils ;  but  in  the  written 


WRITTEN  EXERCISES.  163 

preparation  of  lessons  pupils  are  left  free  to  follow  their 
inclinations,  and  all  this  is  much  worse  in  the  written  work 
at  home,  which  is  often  done  without  sufficient  light,  sit- 
ting on  high  chairs  or  low  stools,  and  often  without  the 
use  of  a  table.  The  evils  resulting  from  these  unfavor- 
able conditions  are  greatly  aggravated  by  the  time  given 
to  such  work. 

A  competent  observer  need  not  remain  long  in  some 
of  our  primary  schools,  especially  in  the  afternoon,  to 
note  the  "fidgety"  condition  of  the  pupils  injury  to 
preparing  written  work,  and  many  thought-  Pupils, 
ful  parents  are  watching  with  solicitude  the  home  work 
of  their  children  who  sometimes  act  as  if  they  would  "  fly 
to  pieces,"  as  a  nervous  girl  once  expressed  her  feel- 
ing. The  increasing  nervousness  of  school  children  is  a 
matter  of  common  observation,  though  few,  it  may  be, 
suspect  that  the  chief  cause  is  an  excessive  amount  of 
written  work. 

There  is  certainly  no  justification  for  the  growing 
practice  of  requiring  nearly  all  lessons  to  be  prepared 
in  writing,  and  the  only  known   reason  for     „ 

o'  J  Preparing 

this  practice  is  the  foolish  desire  of  elemen-  Lessons  in 
tary  teachers  to  imitate  university  methods.  "  '"^' 
The  amount  of  written  work  required  of  young  pupils 
in  some  schools  would  tax  the  nervous  energy  and  en- 
durance of  adults.  Pupils  are  required  to  write  out 
(often  in  set  forms)  the  analysis  of  mental  problems  in 
arithmetic  and  sentences  in  grammar,  rules  and  defini- 
tions in  both  branches,  these  being  often  copied  from 
the  blackboard,  tabulated  and  outlined  descriptions  in 
geography,  physiology,  history,  etc.,  and  all  this  in  addi- 
tion to  language  exercises,  written  work  in  arithmetic 
and  algebra,  spelling,  writing,  drawing,  etc. 


164  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

It  is  just  now  the  fad  in  certain  schools  to  require 
young  pupils  to  prepare  in  writing  at  home  lessons  in 
Home  Les-    primary    geography,  nature  study,  etc.,  and 

sons.  i^qj-  ^  fg^v  parents  are  obliged  to  assist  their 
children  in  this  "original"  work.^  Teachers,  as  well  as 
pupils,  have  been  obliged  to  spend  hours  in  hunting  for 
the  facts  for  assigned  written  lessons,  —  assigned,  as  it 
may  be,  by  the  superintendent  or  principal,  and  this  not 
only  in  high  schools  or  upper  grammar  grades,  but  also 
in  lower  grades.  The  exercises  thus  prepared  may  be 
read  in  class  or  handed  to  the  teacher  to  be  glanced 
over  and  "  marked,"  then  forgotten,  an  instance  in 
which  the  chase  is  deemed  worth  more  than  the  game. 

There  is  one  other  use  of  written  work  that  needs 
only  to  be  mentioned  to  be  condemned.     We  refer  to 

Keeping  the  assigning  of  pencil  and  pen  work,  to  keep 
Pupils  Busy,  pupils  biisj,  cL  practicc  less  common,  it  is 
hoped,  than  it  was  a  few  years  ago.  It  is,  of  course, 
admitted  that  the  keeping  of  pupils  busy  is  an  important 
condition  in  the  easy  government  of  a  school,  but  no  com- 
petent teacher  is  obliged  to  impose  work  for  tJiis  special 
purpose.  There  is  an  abundance  of  helpful  and  profitable 
employment  for  pupils  in  school,  and  the  day  may  be  filled 
with  a  round  of  exercises,  each  affording  pleasurable  ac- 
tivity and  relief.  There  is  no  necessity  in  a  good  school 
for  the  imposition  of  mechanical  tasks  to  keep  pupils  busy. 

1  A  friend  of  the  writer  recently  assisted  his  son  in  preparing  a  lesson  on 
the  Hudson  River  valley,  a  subject  on  which  the  young  lad  unaided  could 
obtain  very  little  information.  The  father  was  well  acquainted  with  the 
valley,  and  the  next  morning  he  started  his  son  to  school  with  what  he  was 
sure  would  pass  as  an  unusually  good  exercise.  The  little  fellow  returned 
at  noon  broken-hearted,  exclaiming:  "The  teacher  said  it  would  not  do. 
/  had  no  arithmetic  in  it !  I  ought  to  have  ratioed  the  Hudson  and  Missis- 
sippi valleys  and  got  the  percentage  !  " 


WRITTEN  EXERCISES.  1 65 

We   are   now    obliged   to    consider   the    question    of 
written  work  in  school  at  closer  quarters ;  and  it  may 
be    first    asserted    positively    that    the    total     Amount  of 
amount  of  pencil  and  pen  work  required  of       written 

Work 

first  year  pupils  daily  (chiefly  pencil  and 
crayon)  should  not  exceed  sixty  minutes  in  four  periods ; 
of  second  year  pupils,  eighty  minutes  in  four  periods  ;  of 
third  and  fourth  year  pupils,  ninety  minutes  in  four  peri- 
ods ;  of  fifth  and  sixth  year  pupils,  two  hours  in  say 
three  or  four  periods;  and  of  pupils  in  upper  grades, 
two  or  three  hours  daily,  the  amount  of  written  work 
increasing  as  pupils  pass  up  in  the  grades.  These  may 
be  accepted  as  the  maxwium  requirements  for  written 
work.  Of  course  much  will  depend  on  the  character 
of  the  written  exercises.  More  time  can  properly  be 
given  to  free  movements  in  drawing  or  the  solution  of 
examples  in  arithmetic  than  to  close  pen  work.  The 
school  program  should  be  so  arranged  that  each  written 
exercise  is  followed  by  recess  or  by  an  exercise  that 
does  not  tax  the  muscles  of  the  fingers.^  A  good  pro- 
gram provides  for  frequent  changes  in  kinds  of  activity. 
The  amount  of  written  work  required  of  pupils  in 
a  given  branch  should  have  intelligent  reference  to 
the  amount  of  such  work  required  in  otJicr  ^oo  much 
branches.     And  here  is  a  practical  difficulty      written 

Work. 

in  what  is  known  as  the  "  departmental " 
system  of  teaching.  The  teacher  who  devotes  his  entire 
time  to  the  teaching  of  one  branch  comes  naturally  to 
feel  that  it  is  tJie  branch  in  the  course,  and  as  such  has 
superior  claims  to  the  time  and  effort  of  pupils.  So 
lessons  are  assigned  with  little  reference  to  the  demands 
of  other  teachers,  and,  as  a  result,  pupils  are  overtaxed. 

^  White's  "  School  Management,"  pp.  86-93. 


1 66  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

Recent  investigations  in  several  schools  have  disclosed 
the  fact  that  pupils  were  assigned  home  study  by  three 

investiga-  ^"^^  ^o^r  different  teachers,  and  that  the 
tions.  aggregate  of  the  work  thus  assigned  was 
twice  what  most  of  the  pupils  could  do  well  in  a  reason- 
able time  for  home  study.  Not  a  few  high  schools  that 
have  only  one  daily  session,  this  broken  by  a  short  lunch 
recess,  provide  little  or  no  time  in  school  hours  for 
study,  and  so  all  lessons  must  be  prepared  at  home. 
Much  of  the  written  work  made  a  part  of  such  prepara- 
tion is  necessarily  done  under  very  unfavorable  condi- 

e        ■  .       tions.     It  is  evident  that  the  home  work  of 

Supervision 

of  Home      pupils  nccds  more  careful  supervision.     It  is 

Work 

certainly  not  sufficient  to  turn  pupils  loose 
into  their  homes  to  do  school  work  there  as  best  they 
may.  When  the  pupils  in  a  class  are  taught  by  several 
teachers,  not  only  the  written  work  but  all  other  study 
required  by  each  teacher  should  have  reference  to  the 
requirements  of  the  other  teachers.  The  total  written 
work  assigned  by  all  the  teachers  should  be  kept  within 
the  total  nervous  energy  usable  in  such  work. 

The  writer  is  aware  that  teachers,  and  sometimes 
principals  and  superintendents,  often  resent  any  intima- 
overtasking  fJou  that  their  pupils  are  in  any  respect  over- 
of  Pupils,  taxed,  but  no  competent  physician,  who  knows 
the  physical  condition  of  a  large  minority  (if  not  a 
majority)  of  the  pupils  in  our  grammar  and  high  schools, 
has  any  doubt  as  to  the  possibility  of  easily  overtaxing 
their  disposable  nervous  energy.  It  is  the  weak  minority 
of  pupils  in  our  schools  (if  a  minority),  whose  health 
needs  to  be  the  special  concern  of  teachers  and  school 
supervisors.  The  strong  will  usually  take  care  of  them- 
selves. 


WRITTEN  EXERCISES.  1 67 

In  school  training  special  pains  should  be  taken  to 
provide  such  a  variety  of  work  as  will  afford  needed 
changes  of  activity.  The  kind  of  work  done  variety  of 
in  one  exercise  should  afford  relief  to  the  vvork. 
powers  taxed  in  another,  and  the  day's  round  of  work 
should  call  into  play  the  various  activities  of  mind  and 
body,  and  each  in  due  degree.  True  methods  of  teach- 
ing make  this  change  of  activity  possible  and  thus 
secure  the  best  training,  as  well  as  the  conserving  of 
physical  health.  The  old-time  routine  of  book  study 
with  little  manual  activity  has  been  properly  condemned 
as  an  overtasking  of  the  mind  in  one  kind  of  activity, 
but  there  seems  to  be  danger  of  going  to  another  extreme, 
and  overtasking  the  nervous  system  by  too  early  and 
too  continuous  manual  activity,  especially  digital  activity. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  the  necessity  of  great 
care  in  the  use  of  written  work  in  instruction  and  drill 
in  the  lower  grades  of  school.  It  is  true  that  orai  Expres- 
an  important  end  of  these  lessons  is  to  train  ®'°"- 
pupils  in  the  clear  expression  of  what  they  know  (p.  30), 
but  oral  expression  is  first  in  time  and  first  in  importance. 
It  is  much  more  important  that  young  pupils  be  able  to 
tell  well  what  they  know  than  that  they  be  able  to  write 
it ;  and  besides  the  first  and  necessary  step  in  training  in 
written  expression  is  facility  in  oral  expression  (p.  222). 
During  the  first  four  or  five  years  of  school  training  the 
emphasis  should  be  placed  strongly  on  oral  expression. 

The    use   of   written  work    in   teaching    the    several 
branches  will   receive    due  attention  in  later  chapters, 
and  so  it  must  suffice  here  to  indicate  in  a  gen-      peasjbie 
eral  way  what  is  desirable  and  feasible.     In      written 
number  exercises  there  is  a  place  almost  from 
the  first  for  the  use  of  figures  and  written  processes,  but  it 


1 68  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

is  clearly  a  mistake  to  require  young  pupils  to  write  out  in 
words  the  solution  of  problems.  Allusion  has  been  made 
to  the  bad  English  prevalent  in  the  written  solution 
of  mental  problems  in  school  exhibits.  Such  solutions 
are  not  good  drills  in  written  language,  and  they  are 
not  needed  in  acquiring  skill  in  the  solution  of  problems. 
The  oral  solution  is  in  every  way  preferable  as  has  been 
abundantly  shown  in  the  teaching  of  mental  arithmetic. 
All  that  is  needed  to  secure  desired  results  is  skill  on  the 
part  of  teachers  in  conducting  oral  exercises. 

The  writing  of  the  words  in  drills  in  spelling  is  almost 
essential  to  accuracy  in  the  practical  use  of  spelling  in 
writing.  But  it  does  not  follow  that  the 
exercises  in  spelling  should  be  wholly  writ- 
ten. Experiments  seem  to  indicate  that  accuracy  in 
spelling  is  best  attained  when  the  eye,  the  ear,  the  hand, 
and  the  vocal  motors  are  conjoined  in  spelHng  drills. 
Besides,  proper  oral  spelling  is  an  aid  in  acquiring  the 
accurate  and  facile  pronunciation  of  words.  The  oral 
drills  in  spelling  with  syllabic  pronunciation  in  the  old- 
time  school  unquestionably  assisted  the  pupils,  not  only 
in  spelling,  but  also  in  acquiring  the  art  of  reading,  so  far 
at  least  as  the  calling  of  words  at  sight  is  reading.  There 
is  clearly  a  proper  union  of  oral  and  written  spelling  in 
elementary  schools. 

In  early  lessons  on  plants  and  animals,  geography, 
etc.,  there  is  a  place  for  more  or  less  written  work,  but 
Reproduc-  carc  should  be  taken  to  keep  such  work 
tive Lessons,  -within  propcr  limits.  There  should  be  oral 
responses  JU^  developing  or  presenting  lessons,  and  the 
essential  facts  taught  should  be  reproduced  by  the  pupils 
orally  (p.  112).  This  ojal  training  is  very  important 
when  pupils^are  not  dumb.     Now  and  then  a  lesson  may 


WRITTEN  EXERCISES.  1 69 

finally  be  reproduced  in  writing,  but  when  this  is  at- 
tempted most  careful  preparation  should  be  made.  The 
pupils  must  be  able  to  tell  what  they  have  learned ; 
all  new  words  should  be  written  on  the  blackboard,  and 
care  should  be  taken  in  the  use  of  capitals,  etc.  The 
written  reproduction  of  lessons  by  young  pupils  should 
be  made  not  merely  a  test  of  knowledge,  but  also  a 
training  in  its  written  expression.  If  care  is  careless 
not  taken  in  these  written  exercises,  careless      written 

Work 

habits  will  be  formed,  and  what  is  striven  for 
in  the  regular  language  exercises  will  be  largely  lost. 
An  inspection  of  the  ordinary  written  work  of  pupils  in 
the  schoolroom,  not  that  specially  prepared  for  the  pur- 
pose or  for  a  school  exhibit,  will  show  that  this  written 
work  is  not  superior  training  in  language.  Pupils  usu- 
ally aim  at  only  one  thing  at  a  time ;  and  their  aim  in  a 
written  exercise  should  be  expression,  including  the  cor- 
rect use  of  written  forms.  What  is  needed  in  written 
work  is  less  quantity  and  higher  quality. 

Written  Tests. 

We  have  had  occasion  in  previous  chapters  to  con- 
sider the  nature  and  function  of  the  recitation  as  a  test 
exercise  and  to  note  the  more  obvious  limitations  of  the 
written  test.  It  now  remains  to  consider  more  fully  the 
use  of  the  written  test  in  recitations,  a  use  that  may 
properly  increase  as  we  ascend  in  the  grades. 

The  written  test  has  long  been  more  or  less  used  in 
recitations  in  spelling,  arithmetic,  and  algebra,  and  more 
recently  in  recitations  in  language  and  other  useofWrit- 
branches,  especially  in  reviews.     In  classes    *^"  Tests, 
sufficiently  advanced  it  may  be  used  in  the  final  repro- 


I/O  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

duction  of  subjects  taught,  also  at  the  completion  of 
each  of  the  several  sub-divisions  of  branches  of  study, 
and  at  the  completion  of  each  branch  when  the  tests 
used  need  to  be  more  incisive  than  comprehensive. 
Such  recurring  tests,  when  used  as  aids  to  teaching  and 
study,  have  special  advantages.  They  give  pupils  a 
tangible  measure  of  their  attainments  and  progress,  thus 
stimulating  them  to  sustained  effort.  They  are  also  help- 
ful to  teachers,  often  disclosing  defects  in  teaching  not 
shown  by  the  ordinary  recitation,  this  being  specially  true 
when  the  questions  used  are  not  prepared  by  the  teacher. 
These  advantages  are  common  to  oral  and  written 
tests  when  both  are  equally  searching,  but  the  written 
test  has  several  advantages  over  the  oral  test. 

Advantages  ° 

of  Written  particularly  in  larger  classes.  The  written 
^'^'^'  test  is  more  impartial  than  the  oral,  since  it 
gives  all  pupils  the  same  tests  and  an  equal  opportunity 
to  meet  them  ;  it  discloses  more  reliably  the  comparative 
progress  of  the  different  pupils,  information  of  value  to 
the  teacher ;  it  reveals  more  clearly  defects  in  teaching 
and  study,  thus  assisting  in  their  correction  ;  it  empha- 
sizes more  strongly  the  importance  of  fullness  and 
accuracy  in  the  expression  of  knowledge ;  and  it  reveals 
more  fully  than  separate  language  exercises  the  pupil's 
ability  to  write  correctly  when  his  attention  is  more 
specially  directed  to  the  thought  or  subject-matter. 

While  the  written  test  has  these  and  other  advantages, 
more  specially  as  a  test  of  knowledge,  it  has  its  serious 

itsLimita-    limitations.      It  cannot  be  made  a  universal 

tions.        t^gs^  Qf   teaching  results  or  even    a   general 

test.     It  does  not  cover  all  the  studies  and  disciplines 

of   the  school  course.     It  is  not   an    adequate   test   of 

power  or  skill  since  these  results  are  mainly  tested  by 


WRITTEN  EXERCISES.  171 

action  or  doing  (p.  92),  as  in  reading  and  singing.  It 
wholly  fails  as  a  test  of  the  will  or  the  conscience  or 
other  moral  forces  in  the  life.  It  has  no  proof  of  virtue 
or  character.  Indeed,  the  most  important  results  in  school 
training  escape  the  written  test  and  the  "  per  cent  table." 
The  function  of  the  written  test  is  to  supplement  the 
searching  oral  test,  and  hence  special  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  give  it  undue  importance  in  union  of 
school  training.     It  is  easy  for  a  teacher  to      °ff'.  """^ 

*=■_  -'  Written 

neglect  or  to  slight  the  recitation  proper,  the  Testing, 
best  factor  in  such  training,  and  make  the  less  fre- 
quent written  test  a  frightful  bugbear  to  sensitive 
pupils.  There  ought  to  be  no  more  anxiety  or  excite- 
ment connected  with  written  tests  than  with  oral  tests ; 
and,  to  this  end,  no  more  should  depend  on 

'  ^  Not  to  be 

the  results.  They  should  come  to  pupils  made  a 
unheralded  and  as  a  part  of  their  school  ^"g^ear. 
experience.  There  should  be  no  fuss  over  them  or  in  view 
of  them,  and  they  should  certainly  never  be  made  a  whip 
or  a  spur  to  urge  pupils  to  greater  application.  On  the 
contrary,  tests  whether  oral  or  written  should  accom- 
pany the  other  teaching  processes  as  a  constant  stimulus 
and  encouragement.  Their  pressure  should  not  be  fitful 
and  spasmodic,  but  gentle  and  steady.  The  more  the 
attention  of  pupils  is  focused  on  stated  examinations, 
the  more  they  fall  into  memoriter  and  mechanical 
methods  of  study.  They  work  for  examination  marks 
as  ends.  The  best  work  is  done  when  there  is  the 
freest  play  of  natural  motives,  and  the  poorest  when 
there  is  an  absorbing  interest  in  examination  results. 
The  freer  a  school  is  kept  from  spasms  of  unnatural 
interest  and  effort,  the  better  its  mental  training  and 
the  more  wholesome  its  Hfe  and  influence. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

PROMOTION   EXAMINATIONS. 

For  a  few  years  past  there  has  been  a  wide  and  earnest 
discussion  of  the  propriety  of  making  the  results  of  writ- 
written  Ex-  ten  examinations  the  basis  (i)  for  the  bestow- 

aminations.  nient  of  scholastic  rewards  and  honors;  or  (2) 
for  determining  the  comparative  success  or  standing  of 
schools  and  teachers  ;  or  (3)  for  the  promotion  and  classi- 
fication of  pupils.  The  discussion  has  centered  largely  on 
the  last  question,  to  wit :  tJie  propriety  of  making  the  results 
of  written  examinations  the  basis  for  the  promotion  and 
classification  of  pupils. 

In  the  discussion  of  this  question  there  has  been  mani- 
fest a  strange  misunderstanding  of  the  real  issue;  and,  as 

Real  Issue  ^  rcsult,  much  inconsequential  talk  and  no  little 
obscured,  confusiou.  Thosc  who  had  long  used  written 
examinations  in  the  promotion  of  pupils  rushed  to  the 
defense  of  written  tests  in  teaching  as  if  their  value  for 
teaching  purposes  was  the  question  at  issue.  Others 
minimized  the  value  of  written  tests  for  teaching  pur- 
poses, to  discredit  their  use  for  promotion  purposes. 
Thus  the  simple  practical  issue  was  greatly  obscured. 
Indeed,  such  was  the  general  confusion  for  a  time  that 
cities  that  discontinued  the  use  of  stated  written  exami- 
nations in  the  promotion  of  pupils  were  announced  as 
having  aboHshed  written  examinations  in  their  schools, — 
and  this  not  only  in  the  daily  papers  but  even  in  school 
journals ! 

172 


J 


PROMOTION  EXAMINATIONS.  173 

Another  source  of  confusion  was  the  failure  to  narrow 
the  issue  to  the  use  of  stated  written  examinations  in 
elementary  schools.  The  question  was  often 
discussed  from  the  college  standpoint,  and  mentary 
also  from  the  use  of  written  examinations  to  schools, 
determine  the  qualifications  of  adults  for  admission  to 
special  courses  of  training  or  to  professional  life.  The 
old  error  of  treating  pupils  in  elementary  schools  as 
adults  was  thus  repeated.  It  was  assumed  that  methods 
adapted  to  adult  students  in  higher  institutions  were 
also  adapted  to  young  children,  even  to  those  in  pri- 
mary schools.  No  mistake  in  the  discussion  of  school 
questions  is  more  common  or  more  misleading  than 
the  failure  to  see  conditions  and  limitations.  The 
tendency  in  considering  even  practical  questions  is  to 
ignore   limiting   conditions    and   treat    them 

°  '-'  _  Limiting 

from  some  theoretical  standpoint  as  uni-  conditions 
versal  in  their  apphcation.  This  tendency  'en°red. 
has  been  surprisingly  manifest  in  the  discussion  of  the 
use  of  stated  written  examinations  in  the  promotion 
and  classification  of  pupils.  All  distinctions  as  to  the 
grade  of  schools  and  the  age  and  ability  of  pupils  have 
often  been  ignored,  it  being  tacitly  assumed  that  the 
use  of  the  system  has  no  limiting  conditions. 

But  whatever  may  have   been  the  confusion  in  the 
theoretical   discussion  of   the  examination  question,    it 

opened   the   eyes    of    teachers    and    school  ^  .,    ,  „ 

*■  ■'  Evils  of  Pro- 

officers  to  the  fact  that  the  use  of  promotion  motion  Ex- 
examinations  in  elementary  schools  is  at-  ^'"'"^^'°"^- 
tended  with  serious  evils,  evils  injuriously  affecting 
teaching,  study,  and  supervision.  Nor  did  it  require 
unusual  intelligence  in  school  affairs  to  see  that  the 
most  serious  of  these  evils  are  not  occasioned  by  the 


174  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

written  examination  as  such,  but  by  the  use  made  of  the 
results.    When  not  only  the  promotion  of  pupils  but  also 
the  efficiency  of  teachers  and  the  standing  of  schools 
are  determined  by  the  results  of  stated  examinations, 
such  examinations  must,  in  the  nature  of  things,  largely 
Examina-     determine  the  scope  and  character  of  prior 
'Te^acliinT^  teaching  and  study,  this  being  specially  true 
and  study,    when  the  written  tests  are  prepared  by  the 
superintendent  for  all  classes  of  the  same  grade  in  the 
schools.     Experience  shows  that  few  teachers  can  face 
such  a  formal  test  of  their  efficiency  and  feel  free  to 
teach  according  to  their  best  judgment  and  power.     In- 
creasingly as  the  ordeal  approaches,  the  burning  ques- 
tion becomes,  not  what  is  best  for  the  pupils,  but  what 
will  "count"  in  the  examination.     Under  this  pressure, 
teaching   inevitably    sinks    into    the    art   of    preparing 
pupils  to  pass  examinations,  and  this  often  becomes  a 
pretty  line  art.       Former  tests  are  scanned 

Preparing        '■  ■' 

Wares  for  for  "  probablc "  questions,  and  the  arts  of 
the  Market,  ^y^^  coachcF  and  crammcr  take  the  place  of 
rational  training.  Teaching  thus  degenerates  into  the 
art  of  preparing  wares  for  the  examination  market. 

It  does  not  seem  necessary  to  give  in  this  place  an 

enumeration  of  the  evils  that  have  attended  stated  pro- 

,  motion  examinations  in  graded  schools,  these 

Summary   of  _  '^  ^ 

Resulting  evils  being  now  almost  universally  recognized. 
^^''^'  It  must  suffice  to  say  that  they  have  pre- 
vented the  best  efforts  of  teachers,  narrowing  and 
grooving  their  instruction  and  training  ;  they  have  occa- 
sioned and  made  well-nigh  imperative  the  use  of  mechan- 
ical methods  ;  they  have  occasioned  cramming  and  other 
vicious  habits  of  study ;  they  have  caused  overpressure 
with  overstudy  at  the  stated  examination  periods,  often 


PROMOTION  EXAMINATIONS.  1 75 

with  injury  to  health ;  and,  by  no  means  least,  they  have 
permitted  and  encouraged  routine  and  mechanical  school 
supervision,  the  very  point  where  the  mechanism  of  the 
system  touches  the  life  of  the  schools. 

The  more  clearly  the  evils  resulting  from  the  exam- 
inatipn  system  of  promoting  pupils  have  been  recog- 
nized,   the    more   evident   has    become    the 

'  Plans  for 

necessity  of  their  correction.     There  are  few     correcting 
cities  in  the  country  that  have  not  adopted  ^''^' 

plans  for  lessening  these  evils,  while  city  after  city  has 
abolished  the  examination  system  and  provided  for  the 
promotion  of  pupils  chiefly  on  the  judgment  of  teachers, 
this  judgment  being  expressed  in  some  cases  in  monthly 
estimates  of  pupils'  work  and  attainments,  the  same 
being  recorded  in  a  simple  manner.  Indeed,  this  move- 
ment to  remedy  the  evils  of  the  examination  system  of 
promoting  pupils  has  been  a  marked  feature  of  recent 
progress  in  the  administration  of  public  schools.  When 
the  author's  "  Elements  of  Pedagogy  "  was  published  in 
1886,  the  promotion  of  pupils  on  the  results  of  stated 
written  examinations  was  general  in  the  graded  schools 
in  the  United  States.  At  this  writing  pupils  are  pro- 
moted on  the  judgment  or  estimates  of  teach-  judgment  of 
ers  in  many  cities,  including  a  score  or  more  Teachers. 
of  the  largest  cities  in  the  country,  and  many  other  cities 
make  the  teacher's  judgment  a  considerable,  if  not  chief, 
element  in  the  promotion  basis.^  The  testimony  is  con- 
clusive that  the  non-use  of  stated  promotion  examina- 
tions has  been  attended  with  a  gratifying  improvement 

1  The  change  in  Great  Britain  has  been  even  more  general  and  marked 
than  in  the  United  States.  The  Government  School  Inspectors  in  Eng- 
land are  not  permitted  to  hold  examinations  at  stated  times  and  the 
ranking  of  schools  and  pupils  is  no  longer  based  on  examination  results. 


176  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

in  the  spirit  of  the  schools,  in  less  mechanical  and  more 
rational  teaching,  and  generally  with  more  satisfactory 
results ;  and,  where  the  estimate  plan  has  been  intelli- 
gently administered,  there  has  been  no  loss  in  classifica- 
tion. 

It  is  conceded  that  the  promotion  of  pupils  or>  the 

judgment  of   teachers  requires  efficient  oversight,  and 

this  is  true  whatever    may  be  the    mode  of 

Supervisory  -' 

Efficiency  ascertaining  such  judgment,  —  the  weakest 
required,  bgjng  the  recommcndation  of  teachers  at  the 
time  of  promotion.  But  efficiency  in  the  supervisory 
office  is  essential  to  all  effective  administration  of 
schools.  When  a  superintendent  or  principal  is  not 
competent  to  secure  from  teachers  reliable  judgments 
as  to  the  attainments  of  their  pupils,  a  change  is  needed 
either  in  teachers  or  in  supervisor. 

There  is  no  more  necessity  for  vitiating  differences 
in  the  judgments  of  teachers  as  to  their  pupils'  success 
Reliability  of  than  in  examination  results  when  the  papers 
Teachers,  ^j-g  read  by  different  persons.  Several  ex- 
periments have  shown  that  teachers  in  different  schools 
will  vary  from  ten  to  twenty  per  cent  in  marking  the 
same  papers.  Teachers  as  a  class  are  as  rehable  in  their 
estimates  as  in  grading  examination  papers.  When  the 
estimate  plan  was  adopted  in  Cincinnati  a  former  super- 
intendent expressed  the  fear  that  the  upper  grades 
would  be  crowded  with  ill-prepared  pupils ;  that  poor 
pupils  would  be  advanced  by  teachers  "  to  get  rid  of 
them  !  " 

The  results  showed  that  a  smaller  percentage  of  pupils 
were  promoted  to  the  higher  grades  under  the  estimate 
plan  than  had  been  previously  promoted  under  the 
examination  system,  and  this  was  not  an  unanticipated 


PROMOTION  EXAMINATIONS.  177 

result.  Examination  results  often  promote  pupils  who, 
in  the  judgment  of  their  teachers,  are  not  prepared  to 
do  the  work  of  the  next  higher  grade,  this  Result  of 
being  frequently  the  case  when  promotion  Experiment, 
tests  are  grooved  to  an  outlined  narrow  course  of  in- 
struction. Indeed,  every  teacher  of  experience  knows 
that  it  is  possible  to  prepare  weak  pupils  to  pass  grooved 
examinations,  just  as  managers  of  normal  institutes 
of  the  "  revised  type "  know  that  it  is  possible  in 
two  or  three  weeks  to  prepare  poor  scholars  to  pass 
examinations  for  a  teacher's  certificate,  this  being 
done  in  several  states  year  after  year  as  a  means  of 
school  progress! 

It  is,  however,  conceded  that  it  requires  more  intelli- 
gent oversight  to  promote  pupils  on  the  judgment  of 
teachers  than  upon  the  results  of  stated  ex-  intelligent 
aminations,  but  this  is  true  of  all  rational  supervision 
school  work.  True  teaching  requires  higher 
qualifications  in  the  teacher  than  poor  teaching.  The 
more  mechanical  the  method,  the  lower  the  qualifica- 
tions required  to  use  it.  Rational  methods  always  re- 
quire high  intelligence  and  skill.  Scientific  methods 
are  possible  only  to  teachers  who  possess  scientific 
attainments  and  insight. 

Teaching  Tests. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  add  that  the  promotion  of 
pupils  on'  the  judgment  or  estimates  of  teachers  does 
not  prevent  the  freest  use  of  written  tests  in      Teaching 
teaching.      As  already  shown,  the  test  is  a        "r^^*^- 
vital  teaching  process,  and,  whether  oral  or  written,  its 
results  enter  into  the  teacher's  judgment  of  the  pupil's 

ART  OF  TEACHING —  12 


178  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

attainments.  Such  a  judgment  necessarily  includes  not 
only  the  pupil's  fidelity  but  also  his  success  in  school 
work,  and  success  is  largely  shown  by  the  tests  that  go 
pari  passu  with  instruction.  It  is  true  that  the  results 
of  teaching  tests  may  not  enter  mechanically  or  mathe- 
matically into  the  teacher's  estimates,  but  they  are  none 
the  less  real  and  trustworthy.  There  is  no  surer  evi- 
dence of  a  pupil's  fitness  for  promotion  than  his  fidelity 
and  success  from  month  to  month  in  the  work  of  the 
grade  from  which  he  is  to  be  promoted. 

What  has  been  said  of  teaching  tests  also  applies  to 
supervisory  tests,  that  is,  tests  instituted  by  a  principal 
Supervisory    or  Superintendent  to  disclose  defects  in  teach- 

Tests.  jj^g  Q^  study,  or  to  suggest  changes  in  methods 
of  teaching.  It  is  true  that  defects  in  school  work  may 
usually  be  learned  by  intelligent  inspection,  but  it  is 
sometimes  desirable  to  give  pupils  an  opportunity  to  see 
for  themselves  the  Hmitations  and  imperfections  of  their 
attainments.  There  is  no  such  eye  opener  for  a  teacher 
or  a  class  as  a  searching  written  test  instituted  to  dis- 
close defects,  and  there  is  no  better  way  to  disclose  the 
need  of  better  methods  of  instruction  and  study.  To 
these  ends  the  results  of  such  a  test  do  not  need  to  be 
recorded.  The  bookkeeping  business  kills  the  super- 
visory as  well  as  the  teaching  test.  Its  purpose  is  not 
to  compare  teachers  or  pupils,  but  to  render  both  teach- 
ers and  pupils  needed  assistance,  and  hence  supervisory 
tests  should  be  kept  in  close  touch  with  the  work  of  the 
school.  It  is  too  late  to  discover  at  the  close  of  a  term 
or  year  that  pupils  have  been  improperly  taught,  or  have 
failed  to  do  assigned  work.  This  information  should  be 
ascertained  in  time  to  correct  errors  and  secure  more 
satisfactory  results. 


PROMOTION  EXAMINATIONS.  1 79 

It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  promotion  tests  cannot 
well  be  made  to  serve  the  purposes  of  teaching  or  super- 
visory tests.  It  is  always  difificult  to  prepare  Promotion 
promotion  tests  that  will  be  suggestive  to  ^TclchiT'^ 
teachers,  and,  at  the  same  time,  fair  to  pupils.  Tests. 
If  the  questions  are  much  broader  than  the  teaching, 
they  are  Hable  to  "  slaughter  "  the  pupils ;  and,  if  they 
are  not  broader  than  the  teaching,  they  are  sure  to  nar- 
row and  groove  the  teacher's  work.  The  attempt  to  make 
promotion  tests  disclose  defects  in  teaching  or  in  the 
course  of  study  always  involves  this  serious  dilemma. 
They  are  either  unfair  to  the  pupils,  causing  them  to 
fail  of  promotion,  or  they  have  little  supervisory  value. 
There  is  certainly  no  place  here  for  the  vicarious  princi- 
ple that  one  class  of  pupils  may  be  made  to  suffer  for 
the  benefit  of  the  pupils  who  are  to  come  after  them. 

A  supervisory  test  may  properly  go  outside  of  the 
known  work  of  the  teacher,  for  the  very  purpose  of 
making  it  broader.  It  may  wisely  be  de- 
signed  to  disclose  what  pupils  do  not  know,  supervisory 
and  to  suggest  a  more  rational  and  effect-  Tests, 
ive  method  of  teaching  or  study.  The  writer  once  sent 
a  series  of  questions  into  an  eighth  year  grade  to  call 
attention  to  the  fact  that  it  is  possible  for  pupils  to  repeat 
certain  statements  respecting  the  change  of  seasons  and 
not  have  much  real  knowledge  of  the  subject.  The  ques- 
tions submitted  included  the  following  : 

1 .  {a)  Why  is  it  warmer  at  noon  than  at  g  o'clock  in  the  morning  ? 
{b)  Why  is  it  warmer  in  Ohio  in  July  than  in  January? 

2.  {a)  In  what  month  is  the  sun  nearest  the  zenith  at  noon  in  Cin- 
cinnati ?     {b)  In  what  month  is  it  farthest  from  the  zenith  at  noon  ? 

3.  What  is  the  difference  in  degrees  between  the  highest  and  the 
lowest  altitude  of  the  sun  at  noon  in  Cincinnati  ? 


l8o  THE  ART  OF   TEACHING. 

4.  {a)  Is  the  sun  at  this  time  (November)  going  from  or  approach- 
ing the  zenith  ?  {b)  When  will  there  be  a  change  ?  When  the  next 
change  ? 

5.  If  you  lived  at  the  equator,  would  the  sun  ever  be  directly  over 
your  head  at  noon  ?     If  so,  when  ? 

6.  {a)  In  how  many  and  what  months  is  the  sun  north  of  the 
zenith  at  noon  at  the  equator  ?  {b)  In  what  months  is  it  south  of  the 
zenith  at  noon  ?         , 

7.  {a)  Are  the  rays  of  the  sun  ever  vertical  at  the  tropic  of  can- 
cer at  noon  ?  If  so,  when  ?  {b)  Are  they  ever  vertical  north  of  the 
tropic  of  cancer  ?     At  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  ?     If  so,  when  ? 

8.  If  you  lived  on  the  equator,  in  what  direction  would  your 
shadow  fall  at  noon  in  July  ?     In  January  ? 

9.  In  what  month  are  the  shadows  of  vertical  objects  in  Cincin- 
nati longest  at  noon  ?  In  what  month  are  the  shadows  shortest  ? 
Why? 

10.  {a)  When  does  the  sun  rise  exactly  in  the  east  ?  ih)  In  what 
months  does  it  rise  north  of  east  ?  South  of  east  ?  {c)  When  does 
it  rise  farthest  north  of  east  ? 

11.  When  the  rays  of  the  sun  are  vertical  at  the  tropic  of  cancer, 
which  zone  has  no  day  ?     Which  zone  has  no  night  ? 

12.  {a)  Which  pole  of  the  earth  is  now  (November)  in  continu- 
ous darkness  ?  {I))  Which  will  be  in  continuous  darkness  next  April  ? 
(f)  Why  the  change  ? 

The  returns  made  by  the  teachers  inchided  (i)  the 

number  of  pupils  examined ;  (2)  number  who  answered 

Returns      qucstion    I    correctly ;    (3)  number  who  an- 

made.  swcred  2  correctly,  and  so  on  to  12.  It  is 
evident  that  such  a  report  would  give  a  superintendent  a 
general  idea  not  only  of  the  general  character  of  the  in- 
struction, but  also  its  weak  points,  knowledge  that  could 
not  have  been  gained  from  percentages  of  correct  an- 
swers on  the  series  of  questions  as  a  whole.  A  sugges- 
tive conference  with  teachers  of  the  grade  resulted  in 
an  earnest  review  of  the  subject,  with  greatly  improved 
attainments.     It  is  plain  that  it  would  have  been  a  great 


PROMOTION  EXAMINATIONS.  l8l 

injustice  to  the  pupils  if  these  questions  had  been  made 
a  promotion  test. 

The  classification  of  pupils  in  a  graded  system  of 
schools  is  at  best  attended  with  serious  difficulties. 
While  the  highest  success  in  class  instruc- 

°  Classifica- 

tion requires  that  pupils  possess  nearly  equal       tion  of 

ability  and  attainments  (p.  141),  the  interests  P"P''^ 
and  needs  of  pupils  require  that  each  be  given  an  oppor- 
tunity to  do  the  work  best  suited  to  his  ability  and  con- 
dition. It  thus  appears  that  there  are  two  somewhat 
conflicting  factors  in  the  classification  of  pupils,  to  wit : 
the  demands  of  the  class  system  for  uniformity,  and, 
over  against  this,  the  interests  and  needs  of  pupils.  It 
is  not  difficult,  as  experience  has  shown,  to  subordinate 
the  latter  to  the  former,  but  the  supreme  obligation  of 
the  school  is  to  subserve  the  interests  of  its  pupils.  The 
system  is  for  the  pupils,  and  not  the  pupils  for  the 
system.  Moreover,  the  proper  classification  of  pupils 
involves  other  elements  than  the  basis  of  promotion, 
howsoever  determined.  The  problem  includes  the  course 
of  instruction,  the  interval  between  successive  classes, 
the  number  of  classes  in  a  room,  etc.,  questions  some- 
what foreign  to  our  present  purpose. 

It  must  suffice  to  add  that  the  reforms  in  the  pro- 
motion and  classification  of  pupils  herein  reviewed  or 
suggested   do    not  involve  the    exclusion   of    „     . 

°°  Meaning  of 

the  searching  examination,  oral  and  written.  Reforms 
from  school  training.  On  the  contrary,  they  P''°posed. 
mean  a  closer  and  more  helpful  union  of  testing  and 
instruction,  the  former  being  made  the  open  eye,  the 
guide,  and  the  spur  of  the  latter.  They  mean  the  free- 
ing of  examinations  from  the  rule  of  the  program, 
making  them  spontaneous,  occasional,  helpful,  and  free. 


1 82  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

They  mean  that  the  teacher  shall  ask,  "What  is  best 
for  the  pupil .  "  and  not,  "  What  will  count  ?  "  They 
mean  that  teaching  is  to  be  a  noble  art,  and  not  the 
sorry  trade  of  preparing  wares  for  the  examination 
market.  They  mean  that  the  teacher  shall  know  the 
ability  and  progress  of  his  pupils,  and  that  his  knowl- 
edge shall  be  respected  and  honored.  They  mean,  as 
elsewhere  stated,^  that  the  principal  is  to  be  the  head 
teacher,  and  not  the  pencil  sharpener  and  the  boss 
whipper ;  the  trainer  and  guide  of  teachers,  and  not  a 
crank  turner  and  method  grinder.  They  mean  that  the 
superintendent  is  to  be  the  instructor,  inspirer,  and 
leader  of  the  teaching  corps,  and  not  a  mechanical 
engineer  of  the  school  machine.  They  mean  that  the 
schools  are  to  be  for  the  pupils,  and  not  the  pupils  for 
the  schools.  They  mean  that  health  and  vigor  are  to 
stand  before  per  cents ;  mental  power  and  culture  be- 
fore cram,  and  moral  character  before  rank.  They 
mean  that  school  life  is  to  be  more  and  more  an  inspi- 
ration and  delight  to  all  youth  that  love  knowledge  and 
mastery. 

^  White's  "  Promotions  and  Examinations  in  Graded  Schools,"  p.  6l. 


y 


CHAPTER   XV. 

PRIMARY   READING. 
Principles  and  Methods. 

In  no  other  branch  of  school  training  is  a  clear  knowl- 
edge of  the  ends  to  be  attained  more  important  than  in 
the  teaching  of  reading,  and  this  is  specially  true  in  the 
first  lessons.  The  importance  of  this  knowledge  of  ends 
is  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  reading  is  not  a  simple  art 
with  a  single  guiding  end,  but  is  a  complex  art  includ- 
ing several  simple  arts  with  different  ends.  This  fact 
has  not  always  been  recognized  in  the  devising  and 
advocacy  of  methods  of  teaching  reading,  and  unfortu- 
nately too  great  stress  has  been  placed  upon  so-called 
methods. 

Two  general  views  as  to  the  results  to  be  attained  in 
teaching  reading  to  children  have  dominated  in  the 
devising  and  use  of  methods.     One  of  these 

,       ,  M  T  ,  r     Two  Views. 

views  looks  upon  silent  reading  as  the  art  of 
recognizing  in  succession  the  words  on  the  written  or 
printed  page,  oral  reading  adding  the  correct  pronuncia- 
tion or  utterance  of  these  words  with  a  proper  observ- 
ance of  the  pauses.  This  was  the  view  generally  held 
by  elementary  teachers  when  the  writer  was  a  child  in 
school.  The  other  view  regards  silent  reading  as  the 
art  of  getting  the  thought  expressed  by  written  or 
printed  words,  oral  reading  adding  the  proper  utterance 
of  the  thought  and  feeling  thus  apprehended. 

183 


1 84  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

It  is  not  meant  that  either  of  these  views  wholly 
excludes  the  other.  Those  who  hold  the  first  view, 
recognize  in  some  degree  that  reading  is  a  means  of 
getting  the  meaning  of  the  printed  page,  but  in  their 
methods  they  specially  aim  at  word  calling,  and  not  at 
thought  getting.  Those  who  hold  the  second  view  recog- 
nize the  fact  that  word  recognition  is  a  necessary  means 
of  thought  reading,  but  their  methods  specially  aim  at 
the  grasp  and  utterance  of  the  thought. 

The  practical  difference  of  these  two  views  will  be 

Special  more  clearly  seen  by  a  glance  at  the  special 
Methods,      methods  which  they  have  inspired. 

The  first  has  resulted  in  the  devising  of  the  a-b-c 
method,  the  syllabic  method,  the  phonic  method,  the  so- 
called  synthetic  method,  each  of  these  methods  having 
for  its  primary  aim  the  training  of  pupils  in  the  power 
to  recognize  and  pronounce  written  or  printed  words. 
The  phonic  and  synthetic  methods  are  based  on  the  fact 
that  the  sounds  which  compose  a  spoken  word  give, 
when  synthesized,  the  name  of  the  printed  word.  Many 
words  when  spoken  are  composed  of  the  sounds  of  all 
the  letters  which  make  up  their  printed  form,  and  hence 
these  purely  phonetic  words  are  readily  taught. 

The  second  view  of  reading  has  resulted  in  the  de- 
vising of  the  word  method,  so  strongly  advocated  by 
Horace  Mann,  the  sentence  method,  and  the  so-called 
thought  method,  each  method  having  for  its  special  end 
the  training  of  pupils  in  the  power  to  get  the  thought 
expressed  by  written  or  printed  words ;  in  other  words, 
the  training  of  pupils  in  thought  reading  and  not  in 
mere  word  calling.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  each  of  these 
three  methods  takes  its  name  from  the  one  feature  in  the 
initial  steps  in  reading  that  is  specially  emphasized  by  it. 


PRIMARY  READING.  185 

The  limitations  of  the  several  methods  of  teaching 
reading,  named  above,  are  evident  when  viewed  in  the 
light  of  the  different  acts  or  processes  that  Limitations 
are  included  in  the  art  of  reading.  Reading  °f  Methods, 
includes  (i)  the  recognition  at  sight  of  the  written  or 
printed  words,  (2)  a  knowledge  of  their  meaning  and  use, 
and  (3),  in  oral  reading,  their  correct  and 
facile  utterance.  These  acts  or  arts  are  es-  ciudedin 
sential  to  the  reading  of  a  sentence.  In  Reading, 
addition  to  this  essential  word  mastery,  the  art  of  read- 
ing includes  (4)  the  grasp  of  the  thought  and  feeling 
expressed  by  the  words,  and  (5),  in  oral  reading,  their 
correct  and  clear  expression.  But  in  order  that  the 
thought  of  a  sentence  may  be  readily  apprehended,  the 
eye  must  acquire  the  art  of  taking  in  the  sentence  as  a 
whole  by  a  synthetic  glance.  So  long  as  the  eye  and  the 
mind  linger  on  successive  words,  hitching  from  one 
word  to  another,  sentences  as  wholes  are  not  seen,  and 
the  easy  grasp  of  the  thought  and  its  proper  vocal 
expression  are  not  possible.  The  act  of  taking  in  a 
group  of  words  with  a  quick  sweep  of  the  eye  must 
become  automatic  before  facile  reading  is  possible. 
There  must  be  word  recognition  without  the  focusing 
of  attention  on  the  successive  words.  Reading  involves 
a  rapid  synthesis  of  words  and  ideas,  the  synthetic 
glance  of  eye  and  mind. 

This  brief  analysis  of  the  different  acts  involved  in 
reading  makes  clear  the  importance  of  forming  correct 
automatic  habits  in  primary  lessons,  and  correct 
this  becomes  a  good  test  of  the  value  of  Habits. 
methods.  In  the  light  of  these  facts  let  us  glance  at 
each  of  the  seven  methods  of  teaching  reading  named 
above. 


1 86  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

The  a-b-c  or  letter  method  aims   primarily  to  teach 

words  as  forms.     It  proceeds  on  the  assumption   that 

The  a-b-c     Written  or  printed  words  are  recognized  from 

Method.  ^Q  letters  of  which  they  are  made  up.  The 
method  has  been  widely  condemned  on  the  ground  that 
it  cannot  give  pupils  the  power  to  make  out  new  words, 
and,  for  the  reason,  that  the  names  of  the  letters  of  a 
word  are  not  when  synthesized  the  name  of  the  word. 
Thus,  the  names  of  the  letters  cat,  when  spoken 
together,  do  not  give  kat,  but  se-a-te.  Yet  notwith- 
standing this  objection,  many  thousands  of  persons 
taught  by  the  a-b-c  method  have,  in  some  way,  early 
acquired  the  power  to  recognize  even  new  words  at 
sight,  and  the  deaf  readily  learn  to  recognize  words  as 
forms  without  their  knowing  the  names,  much  less  the 
sounds,  of  the  letters  that  compose  them.  As  will 
appear  later,  the  ability  of  children  taught  by  the  letter 
method  to  make  out  new  words,  is  largely  due  to 
syllabic  power,  often  acquired  unconsciously.  The 
special  weakness  of  the  old  a-b-c  drill  was  the  focusing 
Automatic     o^  the  pupil's  attention  on  the  letters  in  the 

Habit  successive  words,  resulting  in  the  automatic 
habit  of  letter  and  word  attention  with  indifference  to 
the  thought,  often  resulting  in  the  very  bad  habit  of 
hitching  from  word  to  word,  the  eye  and  the  mind 
keeping  step  together.  In  the  writer's  boyhood  in 
school  he  stood  in  the  reading  class  next  to  a  much 
older  boy  who  spelled  mentally  every  word  read,  usually 
moving  his  lips  at  each  letter.  This  was  done  auto- 
matically on  words  perfectly  known,  as  "  and,"  "  to," 
"is,"  "was,"  etc.  This  idiotic  habit  was  early  formed 
by  "  spelUng  words  out  loud "  before  pronouncing 
them,  a  stupid  practice  in  the  old-time  school.     Thou- 


PRIMARY  READING.  1 87 

sands  of  persons  thus  drilled  in  childhood  have  never 
been  able  to  free  the  eye  to  take  in  words  as  wholes, 
much  less  a  group  of  words  or  a  sentence. 

The  abiUty  to  recognize  syllabic  combinations  of  let- 
ters is  the  real  secret  of  the  a-b-c  method  in  giving 
pupils  facility  in  recognizing  new  words  at  The  syiiawc 
sight.  In  the  old-time  school  the  reading  Method. 
and  spelhng  drills  passed  from  the  alphabet  to  com- 
binations of  letters,  first  those  of  two  letters,  as  ab,  eb, 
ib,  ob,  etc.,  then  combinations  of  three  letters,  and  so 
on.  Pupils  were  thus  made  familiar  with  those  type 
combinations  of  letters  which  constitute  the  syllables 
in  English  words.  It  was  this  syllabic  drill  which  gave 
young  pupils  the  ability  to  recognize  and  pronounce 
words  with  facility.  At  less  than  six  years  of  age  the 
writer  was  able  to  read  the  New  Testament  with  unde- 
sirable rapidity,  that  is,  was  able  to  name  the  words.  It 
is  a  question  whether  pupils  intelligently  taught  by  this 
syllabic  method  did  not  become  as  skillful  word  readers 
as  those  now  taught  by  phonic  methods.  The  start 
was  slower,  for  syllabic  skill  was  at  first  acquired 
somewhat  unconsciously,  but  when  what  are  called 
the  syllabic  phones  of  English  words  were  mastered, 
progress  was  rapid.  When  the  syllabic  habit  and 
the  syllabic  sense  are  established,  new  words  are 
made  out  with  greater  facility  than  by  the  synthesis  of 
their  elements,  whether  letters  or  sounds.  Certainly, 
the  oral  naming  of  the  letters  in  words  is  small,  if  any, 
help  in  their  recognition,  while  the  Jiabit  of  doing  this 
is  a  fatal  obstacle  to  natural  reading. 

The  phonic  method  aims  to  associate  the  sounds  of 
letters  with  their  forms,  and  to  train  pupils  in  the  syn- 
thesis of  the  sounds   of   the  several   letters   in  words. 


1 88  THE  ART  OF   TEACHING. 

Words  are  thus  made  out  by  a  synthesis  of  their  phonic 
elements.  The  method  is  evidently  most  successful 
The  Phonic    iw    teaching     purely    phonetic    words,    that 

Method.  jg^  words  wMch  are  made  up,  when  spoken, 
of  the  sounds  of  all  their  letters.  Fortunately,  the 
child's  vocabulary  contains  many  such  words,  as  is 
shown  by  an  ordinary  primer. 

The  phonic  method  was  in  use  in  Boston  and  several 

other  American  cities  early  in  the  fifties.     In  the  first 

lessons  in  reading,  pupils  were    persistently 

of  Phonic     drilled  in  the  phonic  analysis  of  words,  and 

Method.  ^j^ig  ^^g^g  attended  later  by  the  use  of  diacriti- 
cal marks.  This  training  resulted  in  a  good  degree  of 
skill  in  making  out  new  words  and  increased  accuracy 
in  the  pronunciation  of  words.  But  the  attention  of  the 
pupils  was  largely  focused  on  words,  and  reading  became 
largely  a  process  of  word  calling,  the  grasp  and  expres- 
sion of  the  thought  receiving  little  attention. 

In  the  sixties  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  the  phonic 

method  by  the  invention  of   the  Leigh  type  in  which 

each  letter  had  a  special  form  for  each  of  its 

Leigh  Type.  ...    -  ^      ,         ,  ,      . 

sounds,  the  origmal  form  of  the  letter  benig 
well  preserved.  This  "  Pronouncing  Orthography,"  as 
it  was  called,  was  used  for  several  years  in  the  schools 
of  Boston,  New  York,  St.  Louis,  Washington,  and  sev- 
eral other  cities,  and  the  success  of  the  device  was 
strongly  attested  in  the  successive  reports  of  the  cities 
named.  Indeed,  so  great  was  the  demand  for  the  new 
pronouncing  type  that  an  edition  of  the  primers  in 
several  standard  series  of  readers  was  printed  in  it. 
But  as  early  as  1880  the  Leigh  type  had  largely  dis- 
appeared from  American  schools,  being  displaced  in 
many  instances  by  the  use  of  diacritical  marks. 


PRIMARY  READING.  1 89 

The  English  phonic  systems  have  had  a  Hke  history. 
The  "  Robinson  Phonic  System,"  one  of  the  most  com- 
plete yet  invented,  is  now,  according  to  the  testimony 
of  D.  Salmon,^  practically  dead,  "  the  instruction  book 
being  actually  out  of  print."  Sir  Isaac  Pitman's  "  Pho- 
netic System  "  was  designed  to  be  used  as  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  reading  of  common  type,  and  though  the 
method  was  enthusiastically  pushed  both  in  England 
and  America  its  actual  use  in  the  schools  was  limited. 

The  so-called  synthetic  method  takes  its  name  from 
the  fact  that  it  lays  great  stress  on  the  teaching  of 
words  by  the  synthesis  of  their  phonic  ele- 
ments. It  makes  free  use  of  diacritical  synthetic 
marks  to  denote  the  pronunciation  of  words,  Method. 
and  rules  are  given  for  the  sounds  of  vowels,  for  silent 
letters,  etc.  The  special  stress  of  the  reading  exercise 
is  given  to  the  "marking"  of  words,  the  repeating  of 
phonic  rules,  and  the  pronunciation  of  words  by  a  syn- 
thesis of  their  elementary  sounds.  This  is  often  con- 
tinued by  enthusiastic  teachers  for  months  as  if  it 
were  a  necessary  process  in  learning  to  read.^  The 
result  is  commendable  skill  in  pronouncing  new  words, 
but  the  method  focuses  the  attention  unduly  on  words, 
with  resulting  indifference  to  the  grasp  and  expression 
of  the  thought,  and  this  often  becomes  an  automatic 
habit  not  easily  overcome. 

The  use  of  diacritical  marks  in  first  lessons  in  reading 
is  easily  overdone,  a  liability  that  attends  the  use  of 

^  Salmon's  "  Art  of  Teaching,"  p.  79. 

2  "I  remember  hearing  a  teacher  chide  a  pupil  for  reading  a  sentence 
before  she  had  time  to  mark  the  vowels,  but  since  the  child  could  and  did 
read  without  such  help,  the  marking  was  evidently  unnecessary."  —  Sarah 
Louise  Arnold  in  "  Reading:  How  to  Teach  It." 


IQO  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

all  mechanical  devices.  These  marks  may  properly  be 
used  to  denote  the  sounds  of  letters,  and  also  the  pro- 
Diacriticai  nunciatiou  of  words  written  or  printed  sepa- 
Marks.  rately ;  but  the  words  in  the  sentences 
to  be  read  by  pupils  should  not  be  thus  marked. 
The  habit  of  relying  on  such  artificial  aid  becomes  an 
actual  hindrance  in  reading  common  type.  The  fact 
seems  to  be  overlooked  that  children  learn  to  speak 
correctly  hundreds  of  words  without  any  aid  from 
the  eye. 

The  fact  that  the  making  out  of  words  either  from 
their  letters  or  their  phonic  elements  proves  a  hindrance 
The  Word  in  the  proper  reading  of  sentences  suggested 
Method.  ^Q  ]y[j-  Webb  and  others  that  the  words  occur- 
ring in  the  first  lessons  in  reading  should  be  taught  as 
wholes,  and  in  advance  of  sentence  reading.  It  was 
found  by  trial  that  this  could  easily  be  done,  and  the 
recognition  of  the  words  at  sight  thus  be  secured.  This 
made  it  possible  to  train  the  eye  to  take  in  groups  of 
words  and  sentences,  and  to  direct  the  attention  to  the 
thought  to  be  grasped  and  read. 

This  method,  called  the  word  method,  was  in  use  in 
the  primary  schools  of  Cleveland  as  early  as  1854,  pos- 
sibly   earlier,    and    the    pupils    read    lessons 

Early  Use. 

from  the  board  and  from  charts  and  primers 
with  charming  natural  expression.  In  the  opinion  of 
the  writer  no  other  city  in  the  country  secured  at  that 
day  such  an  admirable  reading  of  the  thought  by  young 
pupils  as  Cleveland.  All  new  words  in  reading  lessons 
were  taught  in  advance  of  any  attempt  at  the  reading 
of  the  sentences.  As  a  result  there  was  no  hitching 
from  word  to  word  and,  under  skillful  teaching,  no  hesi- 
tation on  words.      The  pupils  were  trained  to  take  in 


I 


PRIMARY  READING.  I9I 

groups  of  words  and  sentences  by  a  synthetic  glance, 
and  the  reading  was  free,  natural,  and  expressive. 

But  it  was  soon  evident  that  the  method  was  being 
used  too  exclusively  and  much  too  long.  Even  second- 
year  pupils  had  small  ability  to  make  out  new  weakness  of 
words,  and  their  indifference  to  the  letters  in  Method, 
words  appeared  in  poor  spelling.  The  result  was  a  strik- 
ing example  of  the  persistence  of  habit  when  action 
becomes  automatic.  It  was  also  found  that  the  pupils 
largely  relied  upon  the  teacher  or  other  person  for  new 
words,  and  this  resulted  in  their  stumbling  over  untaught 
words,  even  in  simple  lessons.  Means  were  soon  em- 
ployed to  supplement  the  method  and  correct  its  ten- 
dencies. Its  exclusive  use  was  limited  to  three  or  four 
months,  and  when  pupils  had  acquired  the  power  to  take 
in  at  a  glance  groups  of  words  and  sentences,  it  was 
dropped  even  as  an  initial  step. 

The  so-called  sentence  method  begins  with  the  sen- 
tence as  a  whole.  A  fact  is  developed  objectively  and 
expressed  in  an  oral  sentence,  and  then  this  The  sentence 
sentence  is  written  on  the  board.  The  pupils  Method, 
look  at  the  marks  on  the  board  and  repeat  the  oral  sen- 
tence, and  this  is  called  reading  the  sentence  as  a  whole. 
The  several  words  in  the  sentence  are  next  taught,  first 
as  wholes  (word  method),  and  then  the  sentence  is  read 
by  a  synthesis  of  its  words.  In  a  few  weeks  many  sen- 
tences may  thus  be  given,  and  the  pupils  taught  to 
recognize  scores  of  words  at  sight. 

It  is  evident  that  the  sentences  written  on  the  board 
are  not  at  iirst  jrad  in  any  true  sense  of  the  word.     The 
so-called  reading  is  simply  a  repetition  of  the     sentences 
oral  sentence,  and  this  would  be  done  just  as     not  Read, 
well  if  there  was  no  separation  of  the  words  in  the  writ- 


192  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

ten  sentence  ;  as  for  example,  "  Mary  has  a7iappleinher- 
handy  The  repetition  of  this  sentence,  even  while 
looking  at  it,  is  not  reading  it.  Instead  of  getting  the 
thought  from  the  sentence,  which  is  reading,  the  thought 
is  put  into  the  sentence.  In  speech  and  writing  thought 
is  put  into  sentences ;  in  reading  thought  is  gotten  out 
of  written  or  printed  sentences.  The  sentence  method 
puts  the  emphasis  on  the  reading  of  the  sentence,  and 
secures  from  the  first  the  natural  expression  of  the 
thought.  Its  superiority  to  the  word  method  is,  how- 
ever, not  evident. 

The  sentence  method  is  also  called  the  thought 
method  for  the  reason  that  the  process  begins  with 
The  Thought   tJ^^   thought,  at  first    expressed  orally.     The 

Method.  order  is  first  the  development  of  the 
thought,  next  its  oral  expression,  and  then  the  writing 
of  the  sentence  on  the  board.  One  of  the  earliest  advo- 
cates of  this  method  of  teaching  primary  reading,^  called 
it  "  The  Thought  and  Sentence  Method,"  but  the  pro- 
cess became  generally  known  as  the  sentence  method, 
and,  to  a  more  Hmited  extent,  as  the  thought  method. 

One  of  the  common  reasons  assigned  in  the  advocacy 

of  the  device  was  the  assumption  that  the  thought  is  the 

unit  of  knowledge,   and  hence  the  sentence 

Philosophy  ^ 

of  the  is  the  unit  of  language.  This  was  put  forth 
^*'*^°'*-  as  the  "  philosophy  "  of  the  method  ;  but  it  so 
happens  that  the  thought  is  not  the  unit  of  knowledge, 
but  rather  ideas  and  concepts,  which  are  expressed  by 
words.  An  idea  or  a  concept  is  as  truly  knowledge  as 
a  thought.  Such  groups  of  words  as  "  a  tall  tree,"  "  a 
large  boy,"  "  the  blue  sky,"  "  the  green  grass,"  etc.,  as 

1  Mr.  George  L.  Farnham,  then  Superintendent  of  the  public  schools 
of  Binghamton,  N.Y. 


PRIMARY  READING.  193 

truly  express  knowledge  as  the  formal  sentences  "  The 
tree  is  tall ;  "  "  The  boy  is  large  ;  "  "  The  sky  is  blue,"  etc. 
Indeed,  the  child's  first  knowledge  is  expressed  by  single 
words  and  by  phrases,  not  by  formal  sentences.  The 
word  method  used  by  skillful  teachers  demonstrated  the 
fact  that  children  may  be  as  greatly  interested  in  ideas 
and  concepts  and  their  expression  as  in  sentences. 
Moreover,  the  thought  or  sentence  method  has  at  best 
a  very  limited  use,  it  being  best  used  in  connection  with 
sentences  written  on  the  board.  It  has  no  practical 
advantage  when  the  primer  or  first  reader  is  reached. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  thought  and  sentence 
method  should  be  used  continuously  even  for  a  few 
days.    When  used,  immediate  attention  should 

Limited  Use. 

be  given  to  the  words,  and  the  pupils  should 
be  trained  in  passing  from  the  words  to  the  sentence 
and  its  thought.  Otherwise  pupils  become  dependent 
upon  the  teacher  both  for  the  thought  and  its  expression, 
and  this  results  in  careless  reading,  the  omission  or  in- 
sertion of  words,  etc.  This  is  especially  true  in  reading 
long  sentences  or  those  in  which  modifying  words  are 
not  essential  to  the  expression  of  the  main  thought. 
Pupils  glance  at  sentences  as  wholes  and  "jump  at  the 
thought." 

It  is  evident  from  this  brief  survey  that  no  one  of  the 
so-called  methods  of  teaching  reading  is  a  complete 
method,  even  for  the  first  lessons.  Each  is  no  Method 
a  device  for  the  attainment  of  a  certain  result,  complete, 
and  this  is  only  one  of  several  results  that  are  attained  in 
the  complex  art  of  reading.  Moreover,  it  is  seen  that 
the  exclusive  use  of  any  one  of  these  methods,  even  for 
a  few  weeks,  results  in  some  habit  or  tendency  that  must 

ART  OF  TEACHING  —  1 3 


194  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

be    corrected   before    accurate    and    natural   reading  is 
possible. 

These  facts  suggest  that  the  first  lessons  in  read- 
ing should  be  given  by  such  a  combination  of  pro- 
union  of  cesses  or  methods  as  shall  result  not  only  in 
Methods,  ncccssary  word  mastery  but  also  in  facile 
thought  reading.  It  is  also  evident  that  this  involves 
the  teaching  of  v^ords  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  pre- 
vent early  and  persistent  practice  in  sentence  reading, 
the  grasp  and  expression  of  the  thought.  It  is  possible 
that  this  result  may  not  depend  on  any  special  combina- 
tion of  processes  or  on  any  given  order  of  procedure. 
More  may  depend  on  the  teacher's  clear  knowledge  of 
the  results  to  be  attained,  and  her  skill  in  recognizing 
and  meeting  the  needs  of  the  pupils.  It  may,  however, 
be  helpful  to  suggest  ways  in  which  desired  results  may 
be  secured  and  bad  results  avoided.  This  will  be 
attempted  in  the  next  chapter. 


197 


CHAPTER   XVI. 

FIRST  LESSONS  IN  READING. 

Union  of  Methods. 

It  is  essential  that  the  child  read  from  the  first  not 
only  words  and  phrases,  but, increasingly,  sentences.  To 
this  end,  the  first  reading  lessons  should  be  given  by 
the  use  of  the  blackboard.  No  chart  or  primer  can 
take  the  place  of  the  blackboard  in  these  beginning 
lessons.  The  only  wise  use  that  can  at  first  be  made  of 
chart  or  primer  is  to  supplement  the  board  lessons. 

The  use  of  the  board  involves  the  question  whether 
script  or  print  or  both  should  be  used  in  these  first  les- 
sons. Experience  has  fully  shown  that  there  script  or 
are  advantages  in  first  using  plain  script.  ^""*- 
The  teacher  can  multiply  sentences  much  more  readily 
in  script  than  in  print.  Nothing  is  gained  by  the  use 
of  both  script  and  print  from  the  first.  When  the  time 
comes  to  use  a  print  chart  or  primer,  the  transition  from 
script  to  print  is  quickly  made,  the  similarity  of  script 
and  print  words  greatly  lessening  the  supposed  diffi- 
culty. Besides,  script  charts  may  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  early  board  lessons. 

The  writer  has  in  recent  years  changed  his  opinion 
on  the  propriety  of  requiring  young  children  to  write 
the  words  first  taught,  and  especially  in   schools  that 

1  For  a  helpful  presentation  of  the  first  steps  in  reading,  see  "  Elements 
of  Pedagogy,"  pp.  221-237,  and  Miss  Arnold's  "Reading:  How  to  teach 
It,"  Chapter  III. 

195 


196  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

receive    children  at  five  years  of  age.      There  should 
be  very  little,  if  any,  pen  or  pencil  writing  or  printing 

Writing      t>y  children    at   this   early  age,  the   reasons 

First  Year.    fQj-  \\{-y^  vicw  being  somewhat  fully  given  in 

a  previous  chapter  on  Written   Exercises.     The   early 

use  of  the  pencil  should  be  in  drawing  exercises  with 

freer  movements. 

In  these    board  exercises  care   should   be   taken  to 

introduce  all  words,  phrases,  and  sentences  first  orally. 

Board        The  true  order  here  is  first  the  idea  or  con- 

Lessons.  ^cpt  or  thought,  as  the  case  may  be  ;  then  its 
oral  expression  by  word  or  phrase  or  sentence,  and  then 
the  written  word  or  phrase  or  sentence  on  the  board. 
Reference  has  been  made  in  the  preceding  chapter 
to  the  stress  placed  by  some  teachers  on  beginning 
with  the  sentence,  first  oral  and  then  written,  and  then 
passing  to  the  words  therein.  For  reasons  there  given 
this  order  does  not  seem  important.  To  read  a  sen- 
tence the  mind  must  pass  from  the  words  therein  to 
the  sentence,  and  hence  the  first  step  in  reading  a  sen- 
tence is  to  know  the  words.  When  a  child  knows  and 
can  speak  a  word,  he  quickly  learns  its  written  form, 
knowing  it  then  both  as  a  sound  and  as  a  form,  through 
the  ear  and  the  eye. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  interesting  children  in  read- 
ing words  and  phrases ;  and  their  interest  in  sentences 
Word        is  greatly  increased  by  the  conscious  process 

Method.  Qf  reading  them.  Some  teachers  may  succeed 
best  in  picking  the  words  to  be  learned  out  of  sentences 
written  on  the  board,  but  sentence  reading  is  possible 
only  when  this  process  is  reversed.  The  essential  thing 
is  to  give  the  child  the  power  to  pass  from  known  words 
to    sentences.       Moreov^er,  the  natural  and  expressive 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  READING.  1 97 

oral  reading  of  sentences  depends  much  on  the  proper 
reading  of  the  phrases  therein,  what  is  technically  called 
phrasing  being  essential  to  correct  sentence  reading. 

But  whatever  may  be  true  of  the  first  score  or  more 
of  sentences  taught,  children  must  soon  come  to  the 
reading  of  sentences  made  up  of  known  word 
words ;  and  to  this  end,  ivord  mastery  must  Mastery. 
precede  sentence  reading.  It  is  not  possible  to  read  a 
sentence  made  up  of  unknown  words.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  the  first  few  weeks  to  make  children 
familiar  with  all  new  words  as  luholes,  both  as  sounds 
and  as  forms,  before  they  attempt  to  read  sentences  in 
which  these  words  occur. 

In  the  reading  of  sentences  children  should  be  trained 
to  pass  by  a  synthetic  glance  from  the  words  to  the  sen- 
tence as  a  whole ;  and,  from  the  first,  their  sentence 
sentence  reading  should  not  be  the  mere  Reading, 
calling  of  the  successive  words,  but  the  grasp  of  the 
thought  and  its  oral  expression.  ^  To  this  end,  the 
teaching  of  words  as  wholes  (word  method)  and  their 
combinations  in  phrases  and  sentences  should  be  con- 
tinued until  pupils  have  acquired  the  art  of  "  taking  in  " 
short  sentences  at  a  glance  and  reading  the  thought 
with  ease  and  natural  expression.  This  is  the  basis  of 
the  art  of  reading,  and  the  sooner  it  is  acquired  the  better. 
In  the  absence  of  this  fundamental  skill,  there  can  be  no 
true  reading. 

It  has  been  found  by  wide  practice  that  this  necessary 
training  in  sentence  reading  may  require  the  teaching 

^A  pointer  should  not  be  used  in  reading  blackboard  sentences. 
Pointing  to  the  successive  words  in  a  sentence  necessitates  the  pupil's 
hitching  from  word  to  word  instead  of  taking  in  the  sentence  as  a  whole. 
The  pointer  may  be  used  in  ivord  drills. 


198  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

of  a   hundred  or  more  carefully  chosen  words,  words 

expressing  ideas   and    concepts    made   familiar    to   the 

pupils.    With  these  words  hundreds  of  phrases 

Limit  of        ^     ^  .  ' 

Word        and  sentences,  expressing  observed  and  known 

Method.  facts,  may  in  a  few  weeks  be  formed,  writ- 
ten on  the  board,  and  read  by  the  pupils  in  a  beautiful 
manner.  In  these  exercises,  objective  instruction  and 
the  oral  expression  of  knowledge  may  be  effectively 
united  with  reading.  The  child's  early  lessons  in  read- 
ing should  be  eminently  lessons  in  talking,  in  express- 
ing thought,  as  well  as  in  reading  thought. 

But  the  end  sought  in  teaching  words  as  wholes  is 
attained  in  a  few  weeks,  and  the  reading  drill  must  now 
First  Phonic   afford  the  pupils  needed  training  m  viaking 

Drills.  giif  ji(,y^  words  for  themselves.  Instead  of  pro- 
nouncing new  words  for  the  children,  the  teacher  must 
help  them  to  pronounce  them.  This  introduces  the 
phonic  method,  by  which  pupils  reach  the  pronunciation 
of  words  by  a  synthesis  of  their  elementary  sounds. 
While  pupils  are  learning  words  as  wholes,  and  reading 
with  increasing  skill  sentences  composed  of  them,  the 
teacher  should  in  separate  exereises  begin  to  make 
them  familiar  with  the  phonic  elements  of  spoken 
words,  words  as  sounds.  In  these  drills  the  appeal 
at  first  should  be  ivlioUy  to  the  ear,  with  no  reference 
whatever  to  the  written  or  printed  word.  The  objects 
with  which  these  phonic  exercises  deal  are  sowids, 
and  the  eye  can  render  no  assistance  in  either  their 
analysis  or  synthesis.  Indeed,  the  written  word  may 
be  an  actual  hindrance  in  dealing  with  the  spoken 
word. 

This  training  may  begin  with  drills  in  the  recognition 
of  words  when  slowly  pronounced,  the  sounds  being  suf- 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  HEADING.  1 99 

ficiently  separated  to  be  easily  recognized,  as  vi  a  n, 
top,  etc.,  and  then  the  sounds  may  be  so  widely  sepa- 
rated as  to  be  presented  to  the  ear  as  separate  sounds, 
the  pupils  making  out  the  word  by  a  synthesis  of  its 
elements.  .They  may  next  be  trained  in  the  separation 
of  spoken  words  into  their  elementary  sounds.  A  few 
moments  each  day  devoted  to  such  drills  will  enable 
the  youngest  pupils  to  catch  a  spoken  word  of  one  sylla- 
ble in  the  "  conscious  ear,"  and  separate  it  with  care 
and  accuracy  into  its  elements ;  also  to  unite  given 
phonic  elements  and  form  words. 

When  pupils  become  somewhat  skillful  in  the  analysis 
and  synthesis  of  spoken  words,  the  next  step  is  to  asso- 
ciate  the  elementary  sounds  with    the  letters     . 

-^  Association 

which  represeiit  them.  This  involves  the  use  of  sounds 
of  written  words,  the  union  of  the  ear  and  *"'^  Letters, 
the  eye  in  the  phonic  exercises.  It  seems  unnecessary 
to  give  the  details  of  the  process.  The  result  to  be 
finally  attained  is  the  pronunciation  of  new  written 
words  by  a  synthesis  of  their  phonic  elements.  This 
is  easy  when  the  words  are  purely  phonetic,  and  there 
are  other  words  that  present  no  special  difficulty.  The 
early  phonic  drills  should  be  limited  to  these  words,  and 
special  difficulties  avoided.  Words  will  be  met  whose 
pronunciation  is  to  be  given  by  the  teacher. 

Our  English  words  present  many  phonic  difficulties. 
There  are  few  teachers  who  can  accurately  analyze  by 
sound  all  of  the  words  in  an  ordinary  primer.  Phonic 
Indeed,  the  great  majority  of  elementary  Difficulties, 
teachers  cannot  give  accurately  all  of  the  elementary 
sounds.  The  writer  witnesses  few  exercises  in  the 
phonic  analysis  of  words  without  noting  obvious 
errors. 


200  THE  ART  OF   TEACHING. 

There  are  several  classes  of  words  whose  phonic 
analysis  is  very  difficult.  These  include  words  in  which 
Modified  ^^^  vowel  is  modified  by  coalescing  with  the 
Vowels.  liquid  or  subvocal  which  follows  it,  as  in  vian, 
fast,  chance,  mercy,  etc.  There  are  few  teachers  who 
can  give  the  exact  vowel  sound  in  such  words,  and 
there  are  many  who  do  not  pronounce  this  class  of 
words  correctly.  Another  difficulty  pertains  to  obscure 
vowels  in  unaccented  syllables,  as  in  primer,  glutton, 
error,  creator,  cannon,  secretary,  evil,  etc.  The  vowel  in 
such  syllables  often  loses  its  distinctive  character,  and 
the  sound  in  its  place,  if  any,  so  blends  with  the  con- 
sonant that  it  is  very  difficult  to  separate  them.  StccJi 
syllables  sJio2ild  not  be  analyzed  by  yoking  pnpils.  The 
attempt  results  in  error. 

Further,  nothing  is  gained  by  the  attempt  to  reach 
by  phonic  methods  the  pronunciation  of  words  of  un- 
usual orthography,  as  thorough,  trough,  neigh,  tongue, 
unique,  etc.  The  pronunciation  of  such  words  must  be 
learned  from  the  living  teacher  or  from  the  dictionary  or 
dictionary  methods  of  representing  the  spoken  word. 

All  this  suggests  that  the  phonic  method  of  teaching 

words  has  its  obvious  limitations.     The  phonic  analysis 

Syllabic      and  synthesis  of  words  should  early  be  sup- 

DriUs.  plemented  by  syllabic  analysis  and  synthesis. 
As  soon  as  pupils  know  the  sounds  of  the  consonants 
and  the  more  certain  sounds  of  the  vowels,  they  are  pre- 
pared for  drills  that  will  enable  them  to  recognize  words 
which  contain  what  may  be  called  syllabic  phones,  with- 
out a  conscious  synthesis  of  their  elements.  When  they 
know  at  they  will  instantly  recognize  mat,  rat,  cat,  fat,  bat, 
sat,  etc. ;  from  an  they  will  pass  to  man,  fan,  pan,  ran,  can, 
etc. ;  from  back  to  rack,  sack,  black,  crack,  etc.  ;  from  ligJit 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  READING.  20I 

to  sight,  right,  bright,  nigJit,  migJit,  etc. ;  from  book  to 
look,  hook,  took,  cook,  crook,  etc. 

As  a  means  of  training  the  power  to  make  out  new- 
words  at  sight,  there  is  probably  no  better  device  than 
the    arranging    of    words    that    contain    the 

°      ^  _  Classifica- 

same  combination  of  letters  in  columns  or  in  tion  of 
paragraphs.^  A  good  beginning  in  this  classi-  words, 
fication  of  type  words  may  be  made  from  the  words 
in  previous  lessons,  words  that  express  known  ideas. 
Above  each  column  of  words  may  be  written  the  com- 
mon vowel  properly  marked,  or,  if  preferred,  the  vowel 
in  thQ  first  word  may  be  marked,  thus  : 


s 

6 

i 

Or 

— 

man 

pen 

kit 

rod 

kite 

Kate 

moon 

fan 

hen 

mit 

nod 

bite 

mate 

noon 

pan 

ten 

sit 

pod 

mite 

slate 

coon 

ran 

men 

pit 

sod 

write 

skate 

spoon 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

The  classes  of  words  written  in  columns  may  include 
first  those  containing  short  vowels ;  then  those  with 
long  vowels  and  then  those  with  other  vowel  sounds. 
The  marking  of  the  vowel  in  all  the  words  of  a  class  is 
unnecessary,  and  besides  it  defeats  in  part  the  purpose 
of  their  classification,  to  wit :  the  training  of  pupils  in  pro- 
nouncing syllables  from  type  combinations  of  letters. 
Pupils  may  thus  be  made  familiar  with  all  the  common 
syllabic  phones. 

When  these  type  combinations  of  letters  are  instantly 
recognized  by  pupils,  the  phonic  analysis  of      syiiabic 
words  should  give  place  to  syllabic  analysis,      Analysis, 
and  pupils  should  be  trained  to  pronounce  new  words 

1  This  is  a  return  to  a  form  of  the  old  syllable  drill  which  gave  the 
writer  and  other  pupils  of  the  early  day  the  key  to  new  wordg. 


202  THE   ART   OF  TEACHING. 

by  recognizing  their  syllables  and  synthesizing  them. 
Such  words  as  finish,  manners,  interest,  necessary,  etc., 
are  thus  instantly  known. 

This  syllabic  skill  is  an  important  factor  in  reading ; 
and,  when  acquired,  there  is  little,  if  any,  gain  in  the 
continued  analysis  of  words  into  their  phonic  elements. 
Much  time  may  be  wasted  in  the  repeated  phonic  analy- 
sis of  words  that  present  no  difficulty  in  reading  or  spell- 
ing. The  method  has  value  in  all  grades  in  teaching 
the  pronunciation  of  difficult  words,  and  words  com- 
monly mispronounced,  this  being  specially  true  of  for- 
eign words.  This  is  the  place  where  diacritical  marks 
have  special  value.  Skillful  teachers  find  little  difficulty 
in  teaching  children  to  read  common  type. 

In  four  or  five  months  pupils  may  begin  to  write  words 
as  they  learn  them,  thus  becoming  familiar  with  the  ele- 

writing      mcuts  of  words  2^.^  forms,  or  what  is  known  as 

Words.  |-hg  spelling  of  words.  But  pupils  are  still 
too  young  to  do  fine  writing  with  pencil  or  pen.  Words 
should  be  written  in  large  letters,  and  only  a  few  mo- 
ments each  school  session  should  be  given  to  this  work. 
The  writing  on  slate  or  paper  the  first  school  year  should 
be  in  what  is  known  as  a  "  coarse  hand."  In  the  second 
school  year  the  writing  of  all  new  words  in  the  reading 
lessons  may  properly  be  required ;  but  care  should  still 
be  taken  not  to  demand  too  much  pen  work,  especially 
with  the  "  finger  movement." 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  first  lessons  in  reading  should 

aim  (i)  to  teach  a  few  scores  of  common  words  as  wholes, 

including  their  meaning  and  their  recognition 

Summary.  .     ,      *"    /    s  .  -i  i      t       i   -n 

at  Sight;  (2)  to  impart  to  pupils  needed  skill 
in  taking  in  groups  of  words,  whether  phrases  or  sen- 
tences, by  a  synthetic  glance;   and  (3)  to  afford  them 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  READING.  203 

progressive  practice  in  the  grasp  of  the  thought  in  sen- 
tences and  its  clear  and  natural  oral  expression.  When 
these  results  are  fairly  well  attained,  there  may  be  intro- 
duced drills  in  the  analysis  and  synthesis  of  words  as 
sounds,  with  no  appeal  to  the  eye ;  and  later  both  as 
sounds  and  as  forms  by  a  proper  union  ^of  phonic  and 
letter  exercises,  leading  early  to  syllabic  analysis  and 
synthesis,  the  aim  being  to  give  pupils  needed  skill  in 
making  out  new  words  at  sight.  In  all  this  training  spe- 
cial stress  should  be  constantly  placed  upon  sciitcncc  read- 
ing, word  mastery  being  viewed  chiefly  as  a  means  to  this 
essential  end. 

Second  and  Third  Readers. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  present  here  in  detail  the 
nature  of  the  exercises  in  reading  in  the  second  and 
third    school   years.     It  must    sufifice  to  say 

-^  _  ■'       Second  and 

that  wider  observation  and  experience  attest  Third 
the  practical  value  of  the  suggestions  pre-  G^^ades. 
sented  in  the  "  Elements  of  Pedagogy,"  pp.  230-237.  It 
is  there  asserted  that  the  first  step  in  the  reading  drill  in 
these  grades  is  the  teaching  of  words,  and  the  more  thor- 
oughly this  is  done  the  more  clearly  will  pupils  grasp 
and  express  the  thought.  This  suggests  that  the  read- 
ing lesson  in  these  grades  may  properly  consist  of  two 
corresponding  exercises,  the  first  designed  to  secure  a 
mastery  of  the  words,  and  the  second  a  correct  reading  of 
the  sentences,  the  first  being  preparatory  to  the  second. 
These  two  exercises  may  come  in  the  same  period  ;  or, 
what  is  better  when  lesson  periods  are  brief,  one  period 
may  be  devoted  to  the  mastery  of  the  words,  and  the 
next  to  the  reading  proper,  the  grasp  and  correct 
utterance  of  the  thought. 


204  THE   ART   OF  TEACHING. 

The  stress  of  the  entire  reading  drill  should  be  placed 
on  the  meaning  of  what  is  read.     To  this  end,  the  pupils 

Thought      must  be  interested,  their  feelings  awakened, 

Reading,  ^^id  their  attention  focused.  All  this  requires 
skillful  work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  No  mere  mech- 
anism will  answer.  Special  skill  is  required  to  teach 
lessons  that  appeal  to  the  imagination.  The  reader 
must  see  with  the  mind's  eye  the  picture  which  the 
language  sketches  ;  and,  to  this  end,  the  imagination  must 
be  active  and  responsive.  It  is  not  necessary,  however, 
to  carry  the  imaging  into  minute  details  not  in  the  text. 
What  is  needed  in  reading  is  a  vivid  schema,  not  an 
elaborate  image.  Imaging  in  reading  is  easily  overdone. 
It  is  not  meant  that  nothing  is  to  be  read  in  these 
grades  until  all  new  words  therein  are  taught  and 
Free         mastered.     On  the  contrary,  even    first-year 

Reading,  pupils  should  be  cncouragcd  to  read  simple 
stories  "all  by  themselves,"  although  this  maybe  at- 
tended with  some  stumbling  over  unknown  words.  It 
is  a  good  plan  to  read  and  reread  a  simple  story  to  a 
child  taking  his  first  lessons  in  reading ;  and,  when  the 
story  is  thus  made  famiUar,  to  let  the  child  try  to  read 
it.  The  fact  that  he  knows  the  story  will  help  him  over 
unknown  words,  and  he  will  be  delighted  to  find  that  he 
can  read.  This  will  awaken  a  strong  desire  to  read 
other  stories,  thus  supplying  a  motive  for  effort. 

It  is  also  a  good  practice  to  set  apart  lessons  in  the 

readers  to  be  studied  by  pupils,  and  then  read  without 

Test         ^'^y  prior  teaching  of  words  or  the  meaning 

Lessons.  of  paragraphs.  This  plan  was  tried  in  the 
Cincinnati  schools  with  promising  results.  The  lessons 
in  the  readers,  more  specially  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
readers,  were   divided  into  "  drill    lessons "    and    "  test 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  READING.  205 

lessons,"  the  former  being  used  to  train  those  powers 
involved  in  correct  oral  reading,  and  the  latter  to  test  the 
pupil's  abihty  "  to  husk  the  thought  "  of  the  printed  page. 
The  grasp  of  the  thought  in  the  test  lessons  was  judged 
largely  from  its  oral  expression  by  the  reader  ;  and,  when 
the  expression  was  uncertain  evidence,  the  pupil  was 
questioned  as  to  the  meaning  of  words  and  phrases  as 
well  as  of  sentences  and  paragraphs,  but  care  was  taken 
not  to  make  the  exercise  a  drill  in  reading.  Its  purpose 
was  to  test  reading  pozvcr.  The  effort  of  the  pupils  was 
focused  on  the  clear  expression  of  the  writer's  thought ; 
and,  to  this  end,  on  the  clear  grasp  of  the  thought.  The 
readers  used  were  found  to  contain  sufficient  material 
for  both  classes  of  reading  exercises.  In  some  schools, 
supplementary  readers  are  used  for  this  test  purpose. 

It  should  be  noted  that  these  test  exercises  were  pre- 
ceded by  a  careful  study  by  the  pupils  of  the  pieces  to 
be  read,  with  free  access  to  the  dictionary  and  other  aids 
to  the  grasp  of  the  meaning.  They  were  not  expected 
to  read  new  selections  intelligently  at  sight. 

This  raises  a  question  as  to  the  practical  value  of 
much  of  the  so-called  "  sight  reading "  in  primary 
schools.  They  are  often  exercises  in  word  sight 
calling,  not  in  thought  reading.  The  writer  Reading, 
has  seen  a  story,  new  to  the  children,  read  in  a  class 
from  a  single  book,  the  book  being  passed  from  pupil  to 
pupil.  It  was  necessarily  mere  word  naming,  and  those 
who  listened  evidently  caught  only  the  more  striking  in- 
cidents. It  was  not  good  practice  in  oral  reading,  and 
it  was  not  easy  to  discover  what  valuable  result  was 
attained.  It  requires  a  high  degree  of  skill  to  read 
intelligently  the  printed  page  at  sight.  Too  much  of 
the    silent   reading   by    children,    and    also   by   adults, 


206  THE   ART   OF  TEACHING. 

is  the  mere  skimming  of  the  printed  page,  with  httle 
clear  grasp  of  the  meaning,  and  in  oral  reading  this  be- 
comes mere  word  utterance.  Children  need  to  be  some- 
what familiar  with  a  story  before  they  attempt  to  read 
it  aloud.  It  is  important  that  the  first  three  or  four 
years  in  school  give  children  good  reading  habits. 
Something  is  wrong  when  children  are  taken  over  four  or 
five  readers  with  so  small  ability  to  read  the  printed  page. 

It  seems  important  to  add  that  it  is  not  enough  that 
early   training  in  reading  give  due   attention  to  what 

Reading      rns-Y  ^6  callcd  the  mechanics  of  the  art.     It 

Motive.  is  much  more  important  that  the  child's  de- 
sire to  read  be  awakened,  and  that  this  desire  be  grati- 
fied and  quickened  at  every  step  of  his  progress.  An 
eager  desire  to  learn  to  read  leaps  difficulties  over  which 
a  mechanical  routine  stumbles  and  falls.  The  most 
vital  work  of  the  teacher  is  to  awaken  this  desire,  to 
arouse  interest,  and  otherwise  to  quicken  the  motives  that 
prompt  effort.  The  child's  desire  to  read  is  awakened 
by  hearing  others  read  that  which  interests  him.  "The 
child's  mind,"  says  Miss  Arnold,  "  should  be  furnished 
with  the  best  stories  and  poems  before  he  begins  his 
primer.  So  shall  he  long  to  master  the  art  which  shall 
open  books  to  him  for  his  own  reading,  and  every  step 
which  his  feet  take  in  the  path  to  his  desire,  shall  bring 
him  consciously  nearer  to  the  longed-for  treasure."  ^ 

We  can  only  glance  at  what  children  should  read  in 

these  early  years.     It  seems  to  go  without  saying  that 

what  IS  read  by  children  or  to  them  should 

What  ■' 

should  be     not  Only  interest  and  please,  but  should  also 

^^^'^'        create  a  taste  for  good  literature ;  and  it  is 

here  to  be   remembered   that  what  is  worth    reading 

^  "  Reading  :  How  to  teach  It,"  p.  29. 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  READING.  lOJ 

once  by  a  child  or  to  a  child  is  worth  reading  several 
times.  It  is  not  what  he  hears  or  reads  that  tells,  but 
what  becomes  a  part  of  his  possession  and  life,  a 
memory  treasure. 

This  suggests  that  it  is  possible  for  children  to  read 
too  many  books.  It  is  feared  that  in  some  schools  young 
pupils  are  encouraged  to  read  too  much.  It  too  Much 
sometimes  happens  that  a  rivalry  is  created  Reading, 
among  pupils  as  to  the  number  of  books  read  by  them 
in  a  given  time,  and  an  appalling  number  of  books  read 
is  not  unfrequently  reported.  It  needs  no  examination 
to  disclose  the  fact  that  many  of  these  books  are  skimmed, 
not  really  read,  and  that  much  of  the  reading  is  done 
under  conditions  injurious  to  eyesight  and  to  the  nerv- 
ous system  generally.  Proper  attention  should  be  given 
by  teachers  and  parents  to  the  quantity  as  well  as  the 
quality  of  children's  reading.  The  time  spent  by  a  child 
over  books  should  be  limited.  More  play  and  work  and 
less  reading  of  stories  would  be  a  good  thing  for  a  great 
many  young  people.  There  is  no  virtue  in  reading  of 
itself.  All  depends  on  what  is  read,  and  how  fully  it  is 
understood  and  made  a  part  of  the  reader's  life.  It  is 
not  what  the  eye  passes  over,  but  what  the  soul  takes 
into  itself  that  tells. 

Reading  in  Higher  Grades. 

The  reading  exercise,  especially  in  the  higher  grades, 
should  have  for  its  twofold  purpose :  (i)  the  clear  grasp 
and  appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  what  is    Ends  to  be 
to  be  read,  and  (2)  the  natural  oral  expression      attained, 
of  what  is  thus  grasped  and  appreciated.     The  reading 
drill  should  be  held   intelligently  to   the  reahzation  of 


208  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

these  ends.  Its  purposes  are  as  definite  as  those  involved 
in  the  study  of  a  demonstration  in  Euclid.  The  one 
essential  thing  to  be  known  is  the  meaning  of  the  selec- 
tion, and  the  one  thing  to  be  done  is  to  give  oral  expres- 
sion to  this  meaning.  Whatever  can  throw  light  on  this 
meaning  or  assist  in  its  expression  has  a  legitimate  place 
in  the  reading  exercise ;  but  whatever  obscures  these 
purposes  or  dissipates  effort  should  be  excluded. 

It  is  true  that  this  rule  may  exclude  many  things  that 

would  be  of  interest  and  possibly  of  some  value  to  the 

pupils,  but  it  makes  a  successful  reading  exer- 

omnium  cise  possiblc.  It  is  easy  to  make  a  reading 
Qatherum.  igggon  an  omniii7n  gatJiermn,  thus  distracting 
attention  and  dissipating  effort.  We  have  recently  wit- 
nessed performances,  called  "  reading "  in  the  school 
program,  which  were  a  medley  of  exercises  with  transi- 
tions that  would  have  seemed  ridiculous  if  they  had  not 
been  so  skillfully  manipulated.  A  reading  exercise  that 
devotes  five  minutes  to  actual  reading  and  twenty-five 
minutes  to  other  things  is  not  an  ideal  drill  in  reading, 
whatever  else  may  be  its  merit. 

It  is  not  meant  that  the  reading  exercise  should  be  so 
closely  limited  to  the  interpretation  of  the  text  as  to 
Preparatory  cxcludc  all  Other  information.  On  the  con- 
instruction.  trary,  it  may  be  well  to  approach  the  reading 
of  a  piece  of  literature  by  an  interesting  sketch  of  the 
author,  some  account  of  his  other  literary  productions, 
the  circumstances  under  which  the  piece  was  written,  if 
of  special  interest,  the  author's  purpose  in  writing  it, 
and  whatever  else  may  interest  pupils  in  the  selection  and 
otherwise  assist  them  in  its  intelligent  study.  This  pre- 
paratory instruction  may  be  given  in  a  separate  exercise 
or  it  may  be  made  an  inspiring  part  of  the  lesson's  assign- 


FIRST  LESSONS  IN  READING.  209 

ment.  There  may  also  be  special  vocal  drills  to  impart 
to  the  voice  desired  flexibility  and  power.  But  when 
the  pupils  come  to  the  interpretation  of  the 

'■      '■  Concentra- 

text,  to  its  actual  reading,  everything  should       tion  of 
be  excluded  except  the  author's  meaning  and     attention, 
its  proper  expression.     The  process  of  reading  is  neces- 
sarily limited  to  zvhat  is  read,  and  on  this  the  attetition 
must  be  focused.     The  reading  of  a  piece  of  good  litera- 
ture should  be  clean  and  fruitful  work. 

Books  for  use  in  teaching  the  art  of  reading,  espe- 
cially in   the  higher  grades,  should   largely  represent 
the  literature  of  power  rather  than  the  litera-       school 
ture  of  knowledge.     Such  literature  not  only      Readers 

"  -'  the  best 

touches  more  vitally  the  sources  of  mental  Literature. 
and  spiritual  life,  but  it  affords  the  best  possible  training 
in  oral  expression.  The  use  of  books  of  information  or 
science  as  school  readers  has  not  been  successful.  The 
so-called  science  readers,  geographical  readers,  natural 
history  readers,  and  the  like,  have  a  small  use  even  as 
supplementary  readers.  The  use  of  even  histories  as 
readers  has  not  been  satisfactory,  though  history  is  rich 
in  human  interest.  The  pupil  should  come  under  the 
ennobhng  influence  of  the  best  literature  early  in  the 
school  course,  and, increasingly, he  should  be  responsive 
to  its  humanizing  power. 


ART  OF  TEACHING  —  I4 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

LANGUAGE   TRAINING. 

Guiding  Principles. 

V 

The  art  of  language  is  the  most  fundamental  and 
practical  of  the  school  arts.  It  follows  that  the  teach- 
ing of  this  art,  which  is  begun  in  the  nursery  and  con- 
tinued in  the  kindergarten,  should  be  a  central  aim  of 
the  elementary  school. 

When  children  enter  the  primary  school  at  say  six 

years    of  age,   they    have  many  ideas,   a  considerable 

Language     vocabulary  of  words,  and  more  or  less  abil- 

First'r'wo     ^^y  ^°  express  what  they  know  and    feel  in 

Years.  words,  phrascs,  and  sentences.  The  first 
two  years  in  the  primary  school  should  largely  increase 
their  store  of  ideas  and  facts,  their  usable  vocabulary, 
and  their  ability  to  express  their  knowledge  by  language. 
To  this  end,  there  should  be  well-directed  and  persistent 
training  in  the  use  of  language  in  the  primary  school. 

This  training  in  language  should  make  clear  and 
definite  the  ideas  expressed  by  the  words  used ;  should 
]  give  the  pupils  the  mastery  of  these  words  as 

attained  and  souuds  and  fomis ;  and  the  teaching  of  knowl- 
Exercises.  g^jgg  should,  as  far  as  possible,  end  in  its  clear 
expression  by  the  pupils.  The  daily  exercises  of  the 
primary  school,  the  first  year  especially,  should  include 
conversations  using  freely  the  incidents  of  child  life : 
talks  about  common  things  and  experiences,  the  telling 

2IO 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING.  211 

of  stories  of  special  interest  to  young  children,  the  re- 
cital of  little  poems,  the  singing  of  child  songs,  the 
development  of  material  for  reading  lessons,  etc.  These 
and  other  simple  exercises  may  be  made  fine  training  in 
the  power  of  oral  expression. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  first  year  pupils,  especially 
if  not  admitted  until  they  are  six,  may  begin  to  write 
words  and  short  sentences,   and  during  the 

,  .  ...  Writing. 

second  year  they  may  have  mcreasnig  prac- 
tice (not  too  much)  in  writing  sentences  and  paragraphs, 
thus  acquiring  some  skill  in  the  use  of  the  simplest  writ- 
ten forms  of  English. 

The  first  two  years  of  school  may  thus  afford  children 
an  admirable  training  in  telling  what    they  know  and 
feel,    the    vital    art,    and    may    increasingly      union  of 
give  them  practice  in  writing.     All  this  Ian-     language 

c  J-  o  and  other 

guage  training  may  be  so  united  with  the  Exercises, 
other  exercises  of  the  school  as  to  be  a  part  of  them, 
thus  practically  realizing  the  principle  of  concentration. 
This  union  is  eminently  practicable  in  the  exercises  in 
reading ;  the  exercises  in  expression  affording  material 
for  reading,  and  the  development  of  reading  lessons 
affording  fine  practice  in  oral  expression.  Indeed,  the 
telling  of  what  one  knows  and  feels  and  the  reading  of 
thought  and  feeling  expressed  in  written  language  are 
but  different  phases  of  the  same  mental  process. 

Every  exercise  of  the  primary  school  that  leads  to 
knowledge  properly  ends  in  the  expression 
of  such  knowledge  by  the  pupils.  This  is  should  end  in 
true  of  the  lessons  in  nature,  on  human  life,  e^p^^^^'°"- 
morals  and  manners,  etc.  When  training  in  expression 
is  the  end,  it  is  a  mistake  to  let  even  a  story  exercise 
end  with  the  telling  of  the  story  by  the  teacher.     This 


212  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

may  interest  and  please  the  pupils,  may  make  a  desired 
impression,  but  the  vital  matter  is  reached  when  the 
story  is  retold  by  the  pupils.  It  is  what  children  can 
tell  that  is  evidence  of  real  appropriation. 

The  emphasis  has  been  laid  above  on  oral  expression, 

and  this  for  the  reason  that  facility  in  speech  is  much 

more  important  in  early  trainintr  than  written 

The  Tongue  *  y  o 

before  the     cxprcssion.     Thcrc  should  be  comparatively 
^^"'         little  writing  the  first   two  years  of    school. 
In  all  primary  training  in  language  the  tongue  should 
go  before  the  pen. 

If  the  training  in  expression  in  the  primary  school  is 

skillful  and  abundant,  the  pupils  will  come  up  to  the 

third  school  year  with  a  familiar  vocabulary 

Attainments  -'  •' 

in  Two  of  several  hundred  words,  with  a  good  degree 
Years.  ^£  facility  in  telling  what  they  know,  and 
with  some  skill  in  writing  sentences  and  simple  para- 
graphs. Nor  are  these  mean  attainments  in  language  at 
this  early  age.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  a  good  begin- 
ning in  the  learning  of  this  difficult  but  important  art. 

It  is  here  conceded  that  this  concurrent  training  in 

expression  should  be  continued  throughout  the  school 

course,  every  exercise  being  made  a  training 

Incidental  '  -^  ,      ,     °  ° 

Training  not  in  cxprcssion.  But  this  is  not  enough.  This 
Sufficient,  ii^cidental  training  needs  to  be  supplemented 
by  exercises  which  make  clear  and  facile  expression 
their  chief  end  and  purpose.  "  The  common  child," 
says  Dr.  Hinsdale,  "  will  not  pick  up  the  elementary 
school  arts  by  the  way  without  his  knowledge,  but  he 
must  consciously  learn  them."  ^  This  is  especially  true 
of  the  art  of  language.  The  pupil  may  acquire  and  ought 
to  acquire  a  fair  degree  of  facility  in  expression  in  con- 

1  "  The  Language  Arts,"  p.  53. 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING.  21  3 

nection  with  other  school  exercises,  but  the  highest 
facility  can  be  attained  only  by  practice  in  which  tJie 
attention  is  focused  on  expi'cssion. 

It  follows  that  the  school  course  should  provide 
separate  exercises  in  language,  and  these  exercises 
should  have  as  regular  a  place  in  the  daily 

,  Separate 

program  as  the  arts  of  reading  and  num-  Language 
ber,  arts  which  require  progressive  practice  Exercises, 
during  most  of  the  elementary  course.  The  art  of 
language  is  more  difficult  than  reading  or  numerical 
computation,  and  it  should  certainly  have  as  large  a 
place  in  the  elementary  school.  //  should  be  a  daily 
exercise.  Nor  does  the  fact  that  every  teaching  exer- 
cise should  be  made  a  training  in  expression  do  away 
with  the  necessity  of  separate  language  exercises,  exer- 
cises specially  devoted  to  training  in  the  facile  use  of 
language.  Every  oral  exercise  should  be  a  training  in 
vocal  expression,  but  this  cannot  take  the  place  of  the 
reading  exercise.  Nor  should  separate  exercises  in  lan- 
guage lessen  the  attention  given  to  expression  in  the 
other  school  exercises.  What  is  needed  is  botJi  inci- 
dental and  regular  training  in  expression,  conscientious 
language  training  all  along  the  line.  There  is  no 
danger  that  the  important  art  of  language  will  receive 
too  much  attention  in  school  training. 

Since  the  Council's  "  Committee  of  Ten  "  emphasized 
so  strongly  (not  too  strongly)  the  importance  of  inci- 
dental language  training,  it  has  become  the  Formal 
fashion  to  discredit  what  is  characterized  as  Exercises. 
"  formal  "  language  exercises.  It  is  claimed  that  facility 
in  language  is  best  acquired  by  its  use  in  connection 
with  other  school  exercises,  and  much  stress  is  laid  upon 
"extemporaneous  composition."     The  "  Harvard  Com- 


2T4  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

mittee  on  Composition  "  urges  that  by  daily  and  inces- 
sant practice  pupils  should  early  acquire  that  degree 
of  facility  in  writing  that  will  enable  "  the  student  or 
adult  to  use  it  as  a  tool  in  his  work." 

This  is  true,  but  it  should  be  specially  noted  that  this 
facility  is  never  accjuired  by  careless  writing,  by  writ- 
ing in  an  extemjDoraneous  fashion,  much  below  one's 
Facility  not    ability.     In  no  art  is  skill  increased  by  prac- 

acquired     by     ^j^^  ^j^^^^  j^  ^^^j^^^  ^^^^.^        ^^^.^j.  ^^^  gj,jij_        q^ 
Careless  ^ 

Writing.      the    contrary,   practice    that   is   below   one's 

ability  lessens  skill.     It  begets  the  habit  of  indifferent 

effort,  and  in  language  this  is  fatal.     It  is  only  by  doing 

'one's  best  in  expression  that  the  power  to  do  better  is 

acquired. 

In  the  past  few  years  there  has  been  a  large  increase 

in  the  amount  of  written  work  required  of  pupils  in 

grammar  and    high   schools,  as  written    les- 

Careless         °  ... 

Written  SOUS,  Written  outlines,  written  reviews,  etc., 
^""^"^  and  much  of  this  written  work  is  of  the 
"  extemporaneous  "  sort  (p.  169).  But  little  of  it  compar- 
atively passes  under  the  eye  of  the  teacher,  and  much 
of  it  is  written  with  small  effort  at  the  best  expression. 
It  is  possible  that  this  careless  written  work  in  prepara- 
tory schools  may  be  responsible  for  some  of  the'  low 
attainments  in  English  that  so  puzzle  the  Harvard 
examiners.  Experience  shows  that  written  work  is  likely 
to  be  careless  and  imperfect  when  the  subject-matter 
absorbs  thought  and  attention.  Take,  for  illustration, 
the  notebooks  of  students,  or  even  of  teachers  at  insti- 
tutes or  summer  schools.  The  attention  of  the  note 
takers  is  absorbed  in  the  lesson  or  lecture  and  the 
points  worthy  to  be  noted,  and  as  a  result  little  thought 
is  given  to   expression   or  the   correct   use  of  written 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING.  21 5 

forms,  as  the  notebooks  plainly   show.       It  is  evident 
that  such   practice   can  contribute  httle  to    one's   skill 
and  accuracy  in  the  use  of  written  language. 
These  facts   suggest  that  the  written  work      writing 
required  of  pupils,  especially  in  elementary    Necessary, 
schools,  should   be    kept   within  the    limits  of  careful 
writing.     An  excessive  early  use  of  writing  as  a  "  tool " 
dulls  the  tool  and  lessens  the  probability  of  its  skillful 
use  in  college  or  adult  life. 

These  and  other  reasons  that  need  not  be  stated  show 
that  the  art  of  language  should  be  given  a  regular  place 
in  the  daily  program  of  the  elementary  school.  Language 
and  that  the  training  therein  should  be  as  should  have 
systematic  and  skillful  as  in  any  other  branch,  piace  in  the 
To  this  end,  these  language  exercises  cannot  Program. 
be  tethered  to  exercises  in  other  studies.  They  must 
have  an  aim  and  a  progress  of  their  own.  It  is  true 
that  there  are  lessons  in  several  school  studies  that 
afford  excellent  material  for  an  exercise  in  expression, 
oral  and  written.^  It  is  fine  training  for  pupils  to  put 
what  they  have  learned  on  any  subject  into  the  best 
possible  English;  but,  to  attain  this  result,  their  attention 
must  be  focused  on  the  expression,  and  not  on  the 
knowledge  to  be  expressed. 

As  a  further  introduction  to  the  more  fundamental 
study  of  language  training,  which  is  to  follow,  it  may  be 
suggested  that,  for  this  training,  the  twelve     ^.  .  . 

°°  '  *='    _  Division  of 

years  of  school  may  properly  be  divided  into       school 
tiuo  equal  periods  of  six  years  each.     The  first         ^"° 
six  years  are  to  be  devoted  to  synthetic  training  in  the 
art  of  language;  and  to  this  training  are  to  be  added, 

^  The  use  of  written  language  should  have  a  small  place  in  number 
exercises.     The  analysis  of  problems  should  be  oral, 


2l6  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

during  the  next  six  years,  the  study  of  Enghsh  gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  and  literature.     As  is  seen,  this  scheme 
postpones  the  study  of  technical  grammar,  or  the  sci- 
ence of  language,  to  the  seventh  school  year. 

Place  of  fc>        »    »  J 

Technical      Experience  fully  shows  that  this  is  sufificiently 

Grammar,     ^^^j^  ^^  begin  a  study  that  belongs  to  the 

same  school    period  as   algebra.      When  the   study   is 

begun,  it  should  be  taught  in  a  scientific  manner.     All 

mixing  of  unrelated  exercises  should  be  avoided. 

In  the  old  regime  the  chief  reliance  in  teaching  lan- 
guage above  the  third  school  year,  reading  and  spelling 
excepted,  was  English  grammar;  and  the  chief 
the  Old       aim  of  grammar  instruction  was  to  give  pupils 
Regime       ^  knowledge  of  the  classification  of  words, 
the  structure  of  the  sentence,  and  the  relation  of  words 
therein.      The  means  to   these   ends   were   definitions, 
rules,  parsing,  and  analysis,  and  later  the  correction  of 
"  false  syntax."     This  study  of  technical  grammar  was 
spread  over  a  period  of  four  to  five  years,  being  often 
begun  as  early  as  the  fourth  school  year. 

As  a  means  of  preparing  pupils  to  pass  examinations 
in  grammar,  this  training  answered  its  purpose  reason- 
ably well,  especially  when  the  tests  were  grooved  to  the 
text-book  and  did  not  call  for  the  exercise  of  much  judg- 
ment or  analytic  power.  The  most  satisfactory  results 
were  attained  during  the  last  two  years.  But  the  more 
Language  thoughtful  and  obscrving  teachers  began  to 
Results  of     realize  that  this  grammar  drill,  whatever  its 

Grammar  '-' 

Drills.  value  in  other  directions,  was  not  giving  pupils 
promised  skill  in  the  use  of  language.  The  fact  slowly 
dawned  that  it  is  not  the  function  of  English  grammar 
"  to  teach  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing  the  English 
language  with  propriety,"  as  taught  by  Lindley  Murray, 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING.  21/ 

an   error  fully  disclosed  by  Professor  Whitney  in  the 
preface  to  his  "  Essentials  of  English  Grammar." 

It  is  conceded  that  the  study  of  English  grammar  at 
the  proper  age  has  great  value  as  a  means  of  training 
the   analytic    judgment,    of    developing    the 
power  to  interpret  language,  and  of  estab-      study  of 
lishing  a  standard  for  the  correction  of  errors     ^'■^'"'"a'' 
in  one's  own  speech  and  in  that  of  others ;   but  it  has 
little  or  no  help  for  the  young  pupil  in  acquiring  the 
art  of  expressing  with  facility  what  he  knows,  the  one 
important  result  of  language  training  the  first  six  years 
of  school.     English  grammar  has  an  important  function 
in  school   training,   and    no   other   study  can    take  its 
place.^     But  it  is  not  a  child's  study.     "  As   grammar 
was  made  after  language,"  says  Spencer,  "  so  ought  it 
to  be  taught  after  language." 

There  are  those  who  appeal  to  their  own  experience 
as  proof  of  the  correctness  of  Lindley  Murray's  concep- 
tion of  the  function  of  grammar,  but  they  fail  Appeals  to 
to  note  that  whatever  advantage  in  speech  Experience, 
came  to  them  from  the  study  of  English  grammar  ap- 
peared in  adult  life.  The  writer  is  indebted  to  Lindley 
Murray  and  Kirkham  for  some  of  his  little  skill  in  the  use 
of  correct  English,  but  this  help  came  to  him  from  the 
study  of  grammar  after  he  was  sixteen,  not  in  childhood.^ 

1 "  Grammar  is  the  form  that  logic  assumes  in  the  interpretation  or  con- 
struction of  language,  ant!  so  is  the  only  strictly  logical  study  with  which 
most  persons  who  attend  school  ever  form  a  practical  acquaintance."  — 
Hinsdale's  "The  Language  Arts,"  p.  159. 

2  "  Grammar  has  its  part  to  contribute,  but  rather  in  the  higher  than  in 
the  lower  stages  of  the  work.  One  must  be  a  someuhat  reflective  user  of 
language  to  amend  even  here  and  there  a  point  by  grammatical  reasons, 
and  no  one  ever  changed  from  a  bad  speaker  to  a  good  one  by  applying 
the  rules  of  grammar  to  what  he  said."  —  W.  D.  WHITNEY  in  "  Essentials 
of  English  Grammar," 


2l8  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

Ends  and   Principles. 

We  now  squarely  face  the   definite  question,  What 

should  be  the  nature  of  language  training  during  the 

first  six  years  of  school  ?     In  seeking  a  prac- 

Nature  of  -'  ,  .  . 

Language  tical  answcr  to  this  question,  let  us  consider 
Training.  ^ ^ ■j  ^|^g  q.vl^'s,  to  bc  attained  by  such  training; 
(2)  the  principles  that  must  be  observed;  and  (3)  the 
materials  and  methods  to  be  used.  Fortunately,  mod- 
ern school  experience  sheds  a  clear  light  on  each  of 
these  points. 

I.   Ends  to  be  Attained. 

In  no  other  branch  of  study  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
ends  to  be  attained  more  important  than  in  language. 
Grammar     ^ud  in  no  othcr  branch  is  a  wrong  end  more 
Delusion,      subvcrsive  of  effort.      English  grammar,  as 
heretofore  intimated,  was  long  taught  under  the  delu- 
sion that  its  mastery  gives  the  learner  skill  and  accu- 
racy in  the  use  of  language,  and  this  was  often  held  out 
as  an  enticing  reward  for  its  early  study.     When  the 
so-called   "  language    lessons "   supplanted  grammar  in 
Language     the  lowcr  gradcs  of  school,  the  majority  of 
Lessons,      tcachcrs  lookcd  upon  these  lessons  as  simply 
a  new  method  of  teaching  grammar,  and  grammatical 
accuracy  in  speech  and  writing  was  still  made  the  con- 
scious end  of  effort.     Pupils  were  drilled  in  the  recog- 
nition   of    "  action    words,"    "  object    words,"    "  quality 
words,"  "relation  words,"  etc.,  with  later  drills  on  the 
number  and  case  forms   of  nouns   and   pronouns,  the 
active   and    passive  forms   of  verbs,   with  exercises  in 
changing  and  patching  sentences,  in  filling  blanks,  in 
putting  given  words  into  sentences,  etc. ;  and  the  aim 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING.  219 

of  all  this  patchwork  was  to  introduce  the  pupil  to 
English  grammar,  and  thus  to  guard  him  against  the 
use  of  false  syntax. 

Moreover,  authors  kindly  came  to  the  assistance  of 
teachers  in  the  new  method  of  teaching  grammar. 
Nearly  every  author  of  a  text-book  on  CTam- 

■'  ■'  °  Language 

mar  wrote  an  introductory  grammar  with  the  Lesson 
specious  title  of  "  Language  Lessons."  The  ^^^""^'3. 
general  plan  of  most  of  these  numerous  manuals  is  essen- 
tially the  same.  They  present  a  recurring  series  of  cut- 
feed  lessons  in  grammar,  with  just  enough  real  language 
work  to  make  the  deception  complete.  They  begin 
with  exercises  in  patching  sentences,  filling  blanks,  etc.  ; 
next  pass  to  drills  in  "  simplified  "  grammar,  and  then 
give  a  little  synthetic  work  ;  and  thus  sentence  twisting, 
diluted  grammar,  and  composition  are  mixed  to  the  end 
of  the  dreary  course. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  even  the  so-called  language  lessons 
in  the  schools  have  widely  faced  grammar ;  and,  so  far 
as  they  have   touched   the  art  of  language,     Language 
their  central  aim   has  been   to  secure  orravi-    ^^=f°"^  *° 

<3  face 

matical  accuracy  ill  Speech  and  ivj'iting.  What-  Facility. 
ever  may  be  true  of  the  grammar  results  of  these  lessons, 
they  have  failed  to  give  satisfactory  skill  in  the  art  of 
expression.  What  is  needed  is  to  turn  language  train- 
ing in  elementary  schools  right  about,  and  make  it  face, 
not  grammar,  but  facility  in  the  practical  use  of  lan- 
guage as  a  means  of  expression. 

The  first  and  chief  end  to  be  attained  in  elementary 
language  training  is  : 

I.   Facility  in  the  expression  of  one's  knowledge. 

The  new  word  in  teaching  the  art  of  language,  which 
needs  "to  be  writ  large,"  is  FACILITY.     The  coveted 


220  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

end  of  such  training  is  the  facile  expression  of  what  one 
knows  and  feels  and  wills,  and  this  includes  clearness, 
Facility  First  foJ'ce,  and,  increasingly,  elegance.     Grammati- 

^^'^-  cal  accuracy  is  picked  up  by  the  way.  It  is 
the  result  of  example  and  imitation,  and  hence  cannot 
be  directly  taught  a  child.  "  Good  habits  of  speech  are 
caught  rather  than  taught,"  says  Professor  March,  our 
great  English  scholar.  "The  normal  child,"  says  Dr. 
Hinsdale,  "who  is  accustomed  to  good  EngHsh,  and 
nothing  else,  uses  good  English." 

But  the  pupil  is  also  to  learn  the  art  of  expressing  his 

knowledge  by  zvriting ;  and  this  involves  spelling,  the 

•    n      ^'^^  ^^  capitals,  punctuation,  the  use  of  quota- 

of  Written     tiou   marks,  paragraphing,  etc.,  that    is,  the 

Forms.  skillful  usc  of  the  xvritten  forms  of  language. 
It  is  to  be  specially  noted  that  the  attainment  here 
needed  is  not  simply  a  knowledge  of  these  written 
forms,  but  skill  in  their  nse.  It  follows  that  the  second 
important  end  to  be  attained  in  language  training  is : 

II.  Skill  in  the  use  of  the  written  forms  of  one's 
mother  tongue. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  two  fundamental  ends  to  be 

attained  in  language  training  in  elementary 

Guiding      schools  are:  (i)  facility  in  the  expression  of 

"'^^         ones  knowledge,  and  (2)  skill  in  iising  written 

forms.     Other  results  may  be  important,  but  these  are 

fundamental  and  essential. 

2.    Prinxiples  to  be  Observed. 

How  can  these  ends  be  attained  }  This  inquiry  brings 
us  back  to  the  fundamental  question,  Ho2v  can  poiver 
and  skill  be  trained ?  This  question  is  fully  answered 
in  the  second  and  third  laws  of  teaching  (pp.  39,  48). 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING.  221 

The  several  powers  are  trained  only  by  occasioning  their 
appropriate  activity,  and  each  power  is  trained      La^vs  of 
by  its  own  activity ;  not  by  the  activity  of    Teaching, 
another  power.     It  follows   from  these  principles  that 
analytic  power  is  trained  only  by  analytic  activity  and 
syutJietic  power  only  by  synthetic  activity. 

But  speech  and  writing  are  synthetic  processes,  not  an- 
alytic, and  hence  the  art  of  language  can  be  trained  only 
by  synthetic  activity,  that  is,  by  the  expression       ^rt  of 
of  one's  ideas  and  thoughts  in  words.     What     Language 

.  .  ,     trained  only 

is  true  of  oral  expression  is  equally  true  of  by  synthetic 
written.     Skill  in  the  use  of  the  written  forms      Activity. 
of  language  is  not  acquired  by  learning  formal  rules, 
but  by  actual  practice  in  writing  the  mother  tongue. 

We  thus  reach  the  one  guiding  principle  in  language 
training,  to  wit : 

The  art  of  language  can  be  acquired  only  by  practice 
in  tlie  expression  of  ones  knozvledge  under  guidance  and 
stimidation. 

Both  reason  and  experience  attest  the  correctness  of 
this  principle.  All  experience  shows  that  skill  in  the 
use  of  language  is  acquired  only  by  continued  and 
progressive  practice  in  the  clear  and  forceful  expres- 
sion of  what  one  thinks  and  feels. 

It    follows    that    language    exercises    in    elementary 
schools    should   be   synthetic,   affording    pupils    fruitful 
practice  in  the  expression  of  their  thoughts     Language 
and  feelings.     Exercises  in  which  pupils  re-     fifo^ul^rbe 
peat  the  expression  of  another's  knowledge     synthetic, 
contribute  little  to  their  abihty  to    express  their  own 
knowledge.     The  first   and   essential    requisite    in    the 
expression  of  knowledge  is  a  clear  grasp  of  the  knowl- 
edge to  be  expressed.     The  pupil  who  knows  nothing 


222  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

cannot  come  into  cither  power  or  skill  by  attempts  to 
say  it !  "  Language  and  thought  are  one,"  says  Max 
Miiller.  Certainly,  the  possession  of  knowledge  is 
essential  to  its  expression. 

The  first  step  in  language  training  is  to  help  the 
pupil  to  knowledge  to  express,  and  hence  every  ele- 
First  step  mcutary  lesson  in  language  is  primarily  a 
Knowledge,  kuowlcdgc  Icssou.  The  ucxt  stcp  is  the  ex- 
pression of  the  knowledge  acquired.  This  touches 
the  weakness  of  the  language  work  in  many  schools. 
It  requires  the  expression  of  knowledge  in  the  absence 
of  knowledge  to  express,  and  is  thus  a  parallel  of  the 
folly  of  the  Egyptian  taskmaster  who  required  bricks  to 
be  made  without  straw.  More  than  half  of  the  teacher's 
efforts  in  language  lessons  in  primary  schools  should  be 
given  to  the  developing  of  the  ideas  and  thoughts  to  be 
expressed.  Knowledge  clearly  grasped  begets  an  impulse 
for  its  expression.  Clearness  and  fullness  of  knowledge 
make  clear  and  full  expression  possible. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 

LANGUAGE   TRAINING  {Continued). 

Materials  and  Methods. 

The  training  in  language  the  first  two  years,  particu- 
larly the  first  year,  has  been  quite  fully  indicated  in  the 
preceding  chapter.  It  remains  to  consider  the  nature 
of  language  exercises  to  the  sixth  year  inclusive,  and 
the  methods  of  training  to  be  used. 

These  language  exercises  should  not  only  be  daily,  as 
already  shown,  but  they  should  also  be  as  luell  graded 
and  as  progressive  as  the  lessons  in  arithme- 

■*       '-'  Language 

tic,  or  any  other  branch.  They  should  in-  Exercises 
crease  in  fullness  and  scope  from  year  to  year,  P'"°e'^^ssive. 
new  elements  being  introduced  as  pupils  acquire  the 
power  to  use  them.  One  of  the  common  faults  of  much 
language  work  is  its  continuance  on  a  dead  level,  pupils 
in  the  second  year  being  given  nearly  the  same  exercises 
as  those  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  year.  It  is  not  possible 
to  sustain  interest  in  the  same  language  work  from  year 
to  year.  -  Pupils  must  be  conscious  of  progress  in  any 
art,  and  this  is  eminently  true  in  the  art  of  expression. 
The  exercises  in  language  must  also  afford  a  needful 
variety  of  practice.  A  true  language  course  embodies 
each  year  all  the  fundamental  disciplines  in    ^. 

■'  ^         _  Five  Series 

expression.        The     best     school    experience  of 

shows  that  there  are  five  series  of  exercises     Exercises, 
that  most  fully  meet  this  condition.    These  are  Observa- 

223 


224  THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

tion  exercises,  Picture  exercises,  Story  exercises,  Letter 
writing,  and  Dictation  exercises ;  the  first  four  being 
synthetic,  and  the  fifth  teaching  the  written  forms  of 
language  by  example.  There  are  other  language  exer- 
cises that  have  value,  but  the  five  series  given  above 
afford  the  several  disciplines  in  language  most  needed 
and  most  fruitful  in  the  lower  grades  of  school.  Their 
practical  value  has  been  widely  attested. 

These  different  series  of  exercises  may  be  so  correlated 

each  year  as  to  afford  desired  variety  of  practice,  and, 

Division  of    at  the  same  time,  to  give  the  best  possible 

School  Year  |-i-^ij-|ij-,or  j^  each  scrics.     This  is  accomplished 

into  Four  ^  ^ 

Periods.  by  dividing  the  school  year  into  four  equal 
periods,  and  then  devoting  the  first  period  to  observation 
exercises,  the  second  to  pictures,  the  third  to  stories, 
and  the  fourth  to  letters.  Dictation  drills  to  impart 
skill  in  the  use  of  written  forms  may  be  interspersed 
throughout  the  year  as  needed.  Several  weeks  each 
year,  not  necessarily  in  succession,  may  profitably  be 
devoted  yearly  to  these  exercises  in  dictation. 

One  advantage  in  the  division  of  the  year  among  the 
four  synthetic  series,  as  suggested  above,  is  the  oppor- 
tunity thus    afforded    to  both   teachers    and 

Advantages  -'  _ 

of  Four  pupils  to  acquire  a  fair  degree  of  skill  in  one 
Periods.  ggj-jgs  bcforc  turning  to  another.  There  are 
few  teachers  who  can  give  lessons  in  all  these  series  in 
a  miscellaneous  way,  a  lesson  to-day  on  a  flower,  to-mor- 
row on  a  picture,  the  next  day  on  a  story,  and  so  on. 
The  experience  of  Cincinnati  and  other  cities  shows 
that  it  requires  about  two  months  for  most  teachers  to 
become  reasonably  skillful  in  presenting  any  one  of 
these  series  of  exercises.  The  same  is  true  of  the  pupils. 
It  takes  them  several  weeks  to  acquire  a  fair  degree  of 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING.  225 

skill  in  any  one  series  as  given  in  a  grade.  Of  course 
a  year's  practice  in  one  series  would  give  higher  skill 
than  two  months'  practice,  but  continuing  in  Needed  skui 
any  one  series  for  a  year  would  be  attended         ^^"s 

•   1  -1  r    •  1  T  acquired. 

with  a  serious  loss  of  interest,  and  a  sacrifice 
of  needed  variety  of  discipline.  The  best  results,  the 
entire  course  considered,  are  attained  when  pupils  turn 
from  one  series  to  another  every  eight  or  ten  weeks. 
The  interest  is  thus  readily  sustained,  and  each  year 
affords  training  in  all  of  these  important  disciplines  — 
a  training  that  rises  in  difficulty  from  year  to  year. 

The  outline  on  the  next  page  presents  a  course  of  syn- 
thetic exercises  in  language  that  embodies  the  foregoing 
suggestions. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  outline  that  each  year  is 
divided  equally  among  the  four  synthetic  series,  the  first 
being  devoted  to  observation  lessons,  the  sec-  Explanation 
ond  to  pictures,  the  third  to  stories,  and  the  °^  outline, 
fourth  to  letters.  The  exercises  in  each  series  rise  from 
the  second  year  to  the  sixth  inclusive,  those  in  the  fourth 
year  being  fuller  than  in  the  third,  and  those  in  the  sixth 
year  fuller  than  in  the  fifth. 

The  character  of  the  exercises  in  each  series  will  be 
made  plain  by  a  brief  description,  with  sug-  character  of 
gestions  as  to  methods  of  presentation.  Exercises. 

I.  Observation.  — The  observation  lessons  for  the  sec- 
ond year  may  be  devoted  to  common  objects,  to  actions 
observed  by  the  pupils,  etc.  The  facts  ob-  object 
served  by  the  pupils  are  first  expressed  orally,  Lessons, 
pains  being  taken  to  secure  good  expression,  and  the 
sentences  as  reached  are  written  by  the  teacher  on  the 
board  in  one  paragraph.  The  written  exercise  may  then 
be  read,  the  spelling,  capitals,  etc.,  noted,  and  then  be 

ART  OF  TEACHING —  I5 


226 


THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 


);'WJ  of 
ns,  etc. 
taining 

X 

.nr 

1)    _C 

<u    ^ 

^.2   § 

i  s  s 

S   c 
m   o 

C     cj 

M  en 

«  rt  " 

in     ^ 

3 

|l 

5   I' 

s 

o 

J- 

T3     ui 

^   £   c' 

3 

s2 

.S  .2 

■SI  2 

•"    I-   5«     ■ 

£ 

Q^-2 

£   3 

(73    O 

M    C/3 

s  c  i  e 

3J  -2   «  .2 

B 

o 

1"^ 

V 

S   «; 

O 

.2 
a, 
'J 

Q 

^      _       CS 

«5    C    e 
_a>    o    C 

a 
'So 

Pi 

2   ° 
a,  cJ5 

rt   y  rt 

^  =   =   0 

§  c  - 

ej 

<— 

■5  ^  ^ 

s 
o 

■5 

3^3  ^  ts 

3 

Q 
Pi 

X 
H 

c 

Si 

O 

Q 

'5       >. 

-  _  <^ 

U5       C       C 

1)     o     s 

t^  2  .S 

.5 
'So 

o    u5 

o    o 

<u 
"a. 

c3  S 

2  'a-^  'E 
^  rt  v,  j; 

Itli 

oJ 

Ji  c  ii 

a>    o 

<u 

S 

o  _o  tJ 

Q 

en    V 
n    o 

0    S2 

g    c.^     0 

> 
Q 
Z 

o 

O      ««      (U 

e  i2  Si 

O     u    ^ 

U  .H,  o 

0  .2    ji 

1  y  E 

1  ili 

J2  H   cr 

OS 

•sqdBjSBJBd  j3 

uq  'JBaX 

a 

JO    3SOp 

IE3U    'pUB    'S3DU3 

1U3S  guqu.w     • 

53SIDJ3X3 

>< 

§UipB3J    11 

I  XyaiqD  'jjjoav  u 

3}}UAV   3111II    1:)U 

auiiuoad 

a: 

uoissajdx 

3   IBJQ       '313 

SU0< 

>S3j  uopBAjasqo 

'.  s3uo;s 

S 

jauqguiii 

31    f 

UOI1BSJ3AUOD 

f§UI>[[BlUIS3Spj 

3X3  3ldlUIS 

5 

u5 

fci 

I/) 

OS 

0 

■-* 

5 

ctf 

(d 

p 

as 

> 

as 

b 

i 

< 

X 

a 
O 

t^ 

on 

►J 

Q 

Q 
O 

-♦J 

a 

o 

OS 

•  ■I 

u 

'.5 

3 

^ 

CO 

H 

0 

^^ 


■2  fe 


0)     C3  '« 


o   c   " 

O     u    (U 


.^  "O  J= 
C    C  T3 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING.  22/ 

copied  by  the  pupils  on  slate  or  paper.  By  comparing 
their  written  exercises  with  the  teacher's  on  the  board 
the  pupils  will  see  their  errors.  The  paragraph  on  the 
board  should  now  be  erased  or  covered  and  then  be 
rewritten  by  the  pupils. 

In  three  or  four  weeks  the  pupils  will  be  able  to  tell,  at 
the  close  of  the  oral  exercise,  all  the  facts  observed,  and 
then  to  write  the  same  on  slate  or  paper,  the  The  Written 
teacher  now  writing  the  exercise  on  the  board  Exercise, 
for  comparison  of  the  pupils'  written  work.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  lead  the  pupils  to  tell  well  the  facts  learned, 
and  all  new  words  should,  as  they  occur,  be  written  on 
the  board,  the  aim  being  to  secure  correct  spelling  from 
the  first.  After  its  correction  by  comparison  the  exer- 
cise should  be  rewritten  by  the  pupils.  The  exercise 
should  be  written  in  a  paragraph,  and  words  at  the  end 
of  a  line  should,  when  necessary,  be  "  divided  on  a  syl- 
lable." These  first  steps  in  the  use  of  written  forms 
should  be  very  carefully  taken. 

The  observation  lessons  of  the  third  and  fourth  years 
are  properly  devoted  to  the  study  of  animals  and  plants, 
the  animal  or  plant  studied  being  in  some  Nature  Les- 
form  present.     These  lessons  may  be  so  ar-  =°"^  in  Third 

'-  ■'  and  Fourth 

ranged  as  to  give  pupils  an  inteUigent  intro-  Years, 
duction  to  the  study  of  nature.  The  pupils  should 
not  be  asked  to  write  what  they  cannot  tell  well, 
and  so  special  attention  should  be  given  to  proper  oral 
expression  of  the  facts  learned,  singly  and  finally  to- 
gether. All  new  words  should  be  written  as  they  occur 
on  the  board,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  use 
of  many  scientific  terms.  The  facts  of  comniou  observa- 
tion, rather  than  scientific,  should  constitute  these  les- 
sons.   The  written  work  of  the  pupils  should  be  corrected 


228  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

in  the  time  set  apart  for  the  language  exercise,  and 
chiefly  by  means  of  one  or  two  of  the  pupils'  exercises 
reproduced  on  the  board.  After  correction  the  exercise 
should  be  rewritten  with  care  by  the  pupils,  and  then 
again  rewritten  if  this  be  necessary  to  secure  desired 
excellence.  The  lessons  in  the  fourth  year  may  be  more 
extensive  than  those  in  the  third  year. 

The  exercises  in  this  series  for  the  fifth  and  sixth  years 
are  based  largely  on  prior  observation  and  experience, 
Fifth  and  ^-^d  relate  to  objects  or  phenomena  more  or 
Sixth  Years,  iggg  kuowu  by  the  pupils.  The  study  of  the 
objects  desired  is  indicated  by  questions  dictated  or  writ- 
ten on  the  board,  and  copied  by  the  pupils.  Suppose, 
for  example,  that  the  object  to  be  described  is  snow. 
The  facts  to  be  known  and  expressed  are  indi- 

An  Example.  . 

cated  by  say  eight  or  ten  questions  arranged  in 
proper  order.  The  answers  to  these  questions  are  to  be 
prepared  in  writing  and  brought  to  the  class  at  the  next 
period  for  review.  So  much  of  the  time  as  may  be 
necessary  is  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  pupils'  written 
answers,  with  special  reference  to  the  accuracy  of  the 
facts  given  and  the  manner  of  their  expression.  If  this 
review  be  properly  conducted,  the  pupils  will  know 
many  facts  about  snow,  and  will  have  had  helpful  train- 
ing in  their  clear  expression.  They  are  now  prepared 
to  write  an  intelligent  description  of  snow.^ 

The  next  period  may  be  devoted  to  the  correction  of 

the  written  papers,  and  this  may  be  done  as  previously 

Correction     indicated,  or  by  the  review  of   one  or  more 

of  Papers,     papers  with  pupils  in  groups  observing  the 

same.     The  purpose  of  this  criticism  by  the  teacher  is 

1  It  is  believed  that "  Brookfield's  Composition  "  first  presented  this  method 
of  teaching  composition  to  pupils  who  have  had  little  practice  in  writing. 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING.  229 

not  SO  much  to  perfect  the  present  papers  as  to  enable 
the  pupils  to  be  more  accurate  and  skillful  in  the  next 
exercise,  the  true  object  of  all  correction  of  the  written 
work  of  pupils.  The  subjects  of  rain,  dew,  frost,  fog, 
clouds,  day  and  night,  change  of  seasons,  winter,  sum- 
mer, fall,  spring,  harvest  time,  etc.,  will  afford  other 
interesting  exercises. 

2.    Pictures.  —  Children  like  to  see  pictures  and  talk 
about  them,  this  being  especially  true  when  their  efforts 
at  talking  are  encouraged  and  helped.     The 
question,  "  What  does  Eddie  see  in  the  pic-     Language 
ture  }  "  is  sure  to  focus  sight  and  unloose  the 
tongue.     Pictures  appeal  not  only  to  the  eye,  but  also 
to  the  imagination,  and  hence  are  a  source  of  unfailing 
delight  to  children.      They  are  the  charm   of  nursery 
prints  and  the  primer,  and  contribute  much  to  the  enjoy- 
ments of  child  hfe.     Not  only  do  pictures  give  pleasure, 
but  their  study  trains  the  power  of  observation,  kindles 
the  fancy,  and  cultivates  a  taste  for  the  beautiful.     They 
also  stimulate  expression,  and  afford  admirable  material 
for  its  training.      These  facts  explain  the  prominence 
given  to  pictures  in  elementary  courses  in  language. 

The  use  of  pictures  the  first  school  year  should  be 
free  and  varied.  They  may  be  made  the  basis  of  exer- 
cises   in    conversation    and    reading,    and    in    „ 

"  use  of  Pic- 

various  ways  may  enter  into  other  exercises,  tures  First 
In  the  second  year  they  may  be  used  in  a  ^^° 
more  definite  manner.  The  first  aim  now  is  to  teach 
pupils  to  see  a  picture,  to  see  first  what  is  essential  and 
then  the  related  details.  This  observation  is  readily 
directed  by  questions,  and  in  a  few  weeks  young  pupils 
will  acquire  a  good  degree  of  skill  in  seeing  pictures. 
The  facts  thus  learned,  told  in  proper  order,  constitute 


230 


THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 


a  simple  description  of  a  picture  as  an  object  of  sight. 
The  tendency  of  children  to  read  their  fancies  into  pic- 
tures should  not  be  encouraged  until  they  have  acquired 
fair  skill  in  seeing  what  is  actually  represented. 


When  the  pupils  have  acquired  reasonable  facility  in 
telling  what  they  see  in  a  given  picture,  they  should 
Written  then  write  the  same  on  slate  or  paper.  If 
Exercises.  ^11  ucw  words  are  written  on  the  board  when 
used,  there  will  be  few  misspelled  words  in  the  written 
exercises.  As  a  means  of  correcting  errors,  the  teacher 
should  write  the  exercise  as  a  paragraph  on  the  board, 
writing  sentence  after  sentence  as  given  by  the  pupils, 
special  attention  being  given  to  margins,  spelling,  capi- 
tals, punctuation,  division  of  words  at  end  of  line,  etc. 
When    a   comparison    of   the    pupils'  work,  under   the 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING. 


231 


teacher's  guidance,  has  been  made,  the  exercise  on  the 
board  should  be  erased  or  covered,  and  the  exercise 
rewritten  by  the  pupils.  Care  should  be  taken  in  the 
selection  of  pictures.  Chromos  will  be  found  prefer- 
able to  prints  in  this  grade. 

In  the  third  and  fourth  years  pictures  should  be  used 
that  appeal  to  the  imagination,  and  their  study  made  to 
include  not  only  what  is  seen  by  the  eye  but     ^^^.^^  ^^^ 
also  what  the  mind  sees.    To  simple  descrip-       Fourth 
tion  will  thus  be  added  what  may  be  imagined. 


and  this  will  give  new  interest  to  the  study  and  increased 
facihty,  and  elegance  to  expression.  The  imagination,  as 
well  as  the  observation  of  the  pupils,  may  be  guided 
and  stimulated,  and  the  exercise  may  thus  have  unity. 
Needed  practice  in  oral  expression  should  precede  the 
written  exercise.  This  should  be  corrected  as  indicated 
under  observation  lessons  (p.  227),  and  the  reviewing  of 
the  exercise  should  help  secure  accuracy  and  skill  in  the 
use  of  written  forms. 


232 


THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 


In  the  fifth  and  sixth  years  pictures  may  be  made  the 
basis  of  stories  in  which  the  imagination  has  free  play. 
The  effort  of  the  pupils  is  not  simply  to  see  the  picture 
but  to  read  or  interpret  it.  The  facts  now  to  be  ex- 
Fifth  and  pressed  are  those  which  the  mind  sees  in  the 
Sixth  Years,  picture,  and  experience  shows  that  the  im- 
agination   readily  responds    to   skillful  training.      The 


pictures  used  for  the  purpose  should  be  those  that  tell 
a  story;  and  in  the  fifth  year  the  story  told  should  be 
obvious. 

The  picture  above  was  once  given  as  a  test  exercise  to 
several  thousand  pupils  of  the  sixth  grade.  They  were 
asked  to  write  a  story  suggested  by  the  picture,  and  to 
locate  the  scene  where  there  are  pine  forests  and  much 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING.  233 

snow  in  winter.  Thirty  minutes  were  allowed  for  the 
study  of  the  picture,  noting  the  outlines  of  the  story, 
etc.,  and  then  one  hour  was  given  for  the  writing  of  it. 
The  result  of  the  test  was  gratifying  evidence  of  the 
pupils'  attainments. 

Stories.  —  The  story  has  a  prominent  place  in  the 
modern  primary  school.  It  has  special  value  as  a  means 
of  training  the  power  of  expression.  To  this  stories  in 
end,  it  is  not  enough  that  stories  are  told  or  ^'•'s*  '^^^'■• 
read  to  children ;  tJiey  imist  be  told  by  them.  In  the 
first  school  year,  the  pupils  should  learn  a  few  choice 
stories  by  heart,  and  be  trained  to  tell  them  well.  If 
the  stories  are  properly  selected,  taught,  and  used,  they 
will  increase  the  children's  vocabulary,  and  add  to  their 
facihty  in  talking.  It  is,  however,  a  mistake  to  tell 
young  children  too  many  stories.  When  a  story  is  well 
learned,  it  may  be  written  neatly  on  the  board  and  used 
as  a  reading  lesson,  much  to  the  delight  of  the  httle 
ones. 

In  the  second  year,  the  pupils  should  not  only  tell 
the  story,  but,  when  this  can  be  done  well,  they  should 
write  it  as  neatly  as  possible.     This  is  an 

,,  1         1  •  /■  r     Second  Year. 

excellent  way  to  teach  the  written  forms  of 
language.  All  new  words  in  the  story  should  be  writ- 
ten on  the  board  as  the  story  is  learned.  At  first  it  may 
be  well  for  the  teacher  to  write  the  story  on  the  board, 
calling  attention  to  the  spelling,  use  of  capitals,  punctu- 
ation, and  other  written  forms.  The  story  on  the  board 
may  be  erased  or  covered,  and  then  be  written  by  the 
pupils  on  slate  or  paper.  The  puj^ils'  story  may  now 
be  compared  sentence  by  sentence  with  the  story  on 
the  board,  and  then  be  rewritten  by  the  pupils.  It  is 
easy  to  awaken  in  children  a  lively  interest  in  this  writ- 


234  ^^^-^  ^^^   OF  TEACHING. 

ten  work,  with  increasing  skill  in  the  use  of  written 
forms. 

Special  care  should  be  taken  in  the  selection  of  stories 
thus  to  be  memorized.  They  should  be  worthy  of  a 
Selection  placc  in  the  child's  memory.  Several  of 
of  stories,  t^g  storics  memorized  and  repeated  the  first 
year  and  used  as  reading  lessons,  may  be  used  as  a 
language  exercise  in  the  second  year.  In  two  months 
as  many  as  ten  stories  may  be  used  as  written  exer- 
cises. 

In  the  third  and  fourth  years,  the  stories  read  or  told 

by  the  teacher  are  to  be  reproduced  by  tJic  pupils.     The 

Reproduc-     brief  story  is  first  to  be  told  or  read  by  the 

tion  by       teacher  in  the  most  interesting  manner  pos- 

Questions  in  .  . 

Third  Year,  siblc,  and  thc  pupils  are  called  upon  to  give, 
in  answer  to  questions,  the  name  of  the  story,  the  first 
incident,  the  second,  the  third,  and  so  on,  until  the  story 
is  reproduced.  One  or  more  pupils  are  then  called 
upon  to  tell  the  entire  story ;  and,  when  this  can  be 
done  well,  the  pupils  write  it  on  slate  or  paper.  No 
two  of  the  pupils  will  use  precisely  the  same  words,  but 
all  will  reproduce  the  story  with  a  fair  degree  of  accu- 
racy. One  or  two  of  the  pupils'  reproductions  may  be 
copied  by  them  on  the  board,  and  used  for  the  correction 
of  the  written  work  of  the  class. 

In  the  fourth  year  stories  may  be  reproduced  in  writ- 
ing without  the  oral  reproduction  by  incidents,  as  in 
Reproduc-     the  third  year ;  but  it  will  usually  be  wise  to 

tion  in       |.g|^  Qj.  j-^g^^  |.j^g  story  more  than  once.       It 

Fourth  -' 

Year.  rcquircs  a  degree  of  attention  and  memory 
rarely  possessed  by  young  pupils  to  reproduce  a  story, 
even  a  very  short  one,  on  hearing  it  only  once.  Be- 
sides, nothing  is  gained  by  overforcing  the  attention  at 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING.  235 

SO  early  an  age.  The  reproduction  of  stories  may  be 
made  a  most  efficient  training  in  expression,  and  espe- 
cially in  acquiring  skill  in  the  use  of  written  forms. 

In  the  fifth  and  sixth  years  stories  may  be  written 
from  analyses  or  outlines  which  suggest  the  main  inci- 
dents. Care  must  be  taken  to  select  stories  stories  from 
not  already  known  by  the  pupils,  but  it  is  ^p^f^^lU" 
not  necessary  that  the  stories  be  original,  sixth  Years. 
Literature  abounds  in  choice  stories  that  may  be 
used  for  the  purpose.  The  outlines  may  be  writ- 
ten in  sentences  or  may  be  largely  expressed  by 
words  and  phrases.  A  little  practice  will  enable  a 
teacher  to  prepare  these  outlines  intelligently.  They 
afford  pupils  most  excellent  training  in  the  invention 
of  details  as  well  as  in  writing  a  story  in  choice  lan- 
guage. 

The  following  analysis  of  a  fable  was  used  by  the  late 
Professor  T.    E.    SuUot,    formerly    of    Paris,      „   , 

'  ■'  Professor 

who  in  his  day  was  a  very  skillful  teacher  suiiot's 
of  English  composition.  It  was  given  to  "^  '"^' 
a  class  of  students  in  a  preparatory  school : 

1.  During  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Augustus  a  dolphin  formed 
an  attachment  for  a  boy,  the  son  of  a  poor  man. 

2.  The  boy  fed  the  dolphin  with  bits  of  bread. 

3.  Every  day  the  dolphin  swam  to  the  surface  of  the  water. 

4.  The  dolphin  was  called  by  the  boy  and  received  his  usual 
meal. 

5.  The  dolphin  is  said  to  have  carried  the  boy  on  his  back  from 
the  seaport  to  a  school  in  Puteoli,  bringing  him  back  in  the  same 
manner. 

6.  After  a  time  the  boy  grew  sick  and  died. 

7.  The  dolphin  came  daily  to  the  usual  place,  but  missed  his  kind 
companion. 

8.  The  dolphin  died  of  grief. 


236  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

The  following  outlines  of  a  story  were  given  as  a 
test  exercise  to  about  three  thousand  pupils  in  the  sixth 
grade  in  the  Cincinnati  schools : 

THE   FORGIVEN    DEBT. 

Boston  merchant ;  much  business  with  Cape  Cod  fishermen ; 
fishermen  often  have  bad  luck;    not  able  to  pay  debts. 

Merchant  dies  without  will ;  three  sons  ;  the  elder  made  adminis- 
trator; finds  among  his  father's  papers  a  package  of  unpaid  bills, 
with  written  request  that  they  be  burned.  Meeting  of  brothers ; 
they  agree  ;  make  a  list  of  the  debtors  ;  burn  the  bills. 

Old  fisherman  calls  at  elder  brother's  office  ;  wishes  to  pay  a  debt 
long  since  due ;  saved  a  little  money  each  year ;  has  now  $500. 

The  son  looks  over  list ;  finds  the  old  man's  name  ;  tells  him  debt 
is  canceled  ;  fisherman  begs  to  pay  at  least  a  part ;  son  will  take 
nothing. 

Old  fisherman's  gratitude  ;  returns  home  with  light  heart ;  joy  in 
family. 

Letters.  —  The  ability  to  write  a  well  expressed  and 

neatly   written   letter   is  a  very  important   acquisition, 

one  that  should   receive  careful  attention  in 

Importance 

of  Letter  school  training.  The  fact  that  many  pupils 
Writing,  igg^ye  school  before  the  sixth  school  year 
makes  it  important  that  early  training  in  letter  writing 
be  provided.  As  early  as  the  close  of  the  fourth  school 
year,  pupils  as  a  class  should  be  able  to  write  a  credit- 
able letter.  It  is  true  that  this  will  require  much  instruc- 
tion and  practice,  but  this  is  just  the  training  which  the 
school  should  provide. 

Training  in  letter  writing  should  begin  with  the  writing 
Series  of     o^  simple  notcs,  first  without  date  and  later 
Exercises,     ^yj^-h  date,  and,  as  early  as  the  third  school 
year,  it  should  pass  to  the  writing  of  complete  letters. 

For  full  directions  as  to  the  teaching  of  letter  writ- 
ing, the  reader  is  referred  to  manuals  on  the  subject. 


LA  NG  UA  GE    TRAINING. 


237 


It  must  suffice  to  say  that  special  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  dating,  salutation,  signing,  folding,  address- 
ing, etc.  ;  and,  what  is  even  more  important, 

1  1   .  rr-M  .  c        1  Suggestions 

to  the  subject  matter.  The  writer  of  a  letter 
should  have  something  to  write,  a  message  to  covwiuni- 
cate ;  and  this  will  often  need  careful  development. 
A  letter  is  a  pen  talk  with  another  person,  and  as  such 
it  affords  an  opportunity  for  the  free  and  natural  expres- 
sion of  one's  thoughts  and  feelings.  The  letter  is  the 
simplest  of  original  written  productions. 

In  the  fifth  and  sixth  school  years  attention  is  properly 
given  to  social  and  business  correspondence.  Some  good 
material  for  business  letters  and  papers  will  be  furnished 
by  the  exercises  in  arithmetic. 

Dictation.  —  The  object  of  these  exercises  is  to  make 
pupils  familiar  with  the  written  forms  of  EngHsh  and 
skillful  in  their  use.  In  the  sixties  General  Dictation 
Garfield  and  the  writer  listened  to  an  insti-  Exercises, 
tute  lecture  in  which  some  fifteen  rules  of  spelling  were 
presented  and  illustrated.  At  the  close  of  the  lecture, 
the  General  turned  and  said,  "  That  is  interesting  as 
information,  but  did  any  one  ever  learn  to  spell  by  rule  .-"  " 
Certainly  no  child  ever  thus  learned  to  spell,  and  what 
is  true  of  spelling  is  true  of  the  use  of  capitals,  punctua- 
tion points,  abbreviations,  quotation  marks,  and  other 
written  forms.  It  is  in  the  continued  and  progressive 
7ise  of  these  forms  that  pupils  come  to  know  them  and 
to  be  skillful  in  their  practical  use  in  writing. 

The    language    lessons,    heretofore    sketched,    afford 
pupils   much    practice   in  the   use  of    English   written 
forms,  but  this   practice  can    readily   be    in- 
creased in  efficiency  by  the  wise  use  of  dicta- 
tion exercises.     One  advantage  of  these  exercises  is  the 


238  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

repetition  of  the  more  common  forms  which  may  thus  be 
secured.  The  exercises  may  also  be  so  graded  as  to 
introduce  one  form  after  another,  thus  furnishing  needed 
practice  and  reaching  desired  skill.  One  dictated  exer- 
cise a  week  for  four  years  would,  if  properly  graded, 
make  elementary  pupils  familiar  with  the  more  common 
written  forms  of  English. 

When  the  dictated  exercises  are  written  by  the  pupils, 
they  should  be  written  on  the  board  as  models  for  com- 
correctionof  parisou  \\\  thc  corrcctiou  of  the  pupils'  work. 
Exercises,  'j-q  g^^g  time  in  class,  the  exercises  may  be 
written  in  advance  on  the  board  and  covered,  or,  what 
is  better,  may  be  written  on  sheets  of  paper  of  suitable 
size.  After  correction  the  exercises  should  be  rewritten 
by  the  pupils  to  attain  desired  accuracy. 

We  give   below  a  few  exercises  as  examples  of  the 

dictation   work  that  may  be  made  a  part  of  language 

training.       These    exercises  are  suitable  for 

Examples.  1     ^r  1  -i  i        1  1 

fourth  and  fifth  year  pupils ;  and,  the  last 
possibly  excepted,  may  be  used  as  early  as  the  third 
year. 

Cleveland,  O.,  Nov.  22,  1900. 

My  dear  Mother  :  — We  had  a  very  pleasant  ride  on  the  cars, 
and  reached  the  Union  Station  at  4  o'clock.  Uncle  Calvin  met  us 
at  the  train  and  took  us  home  in  his  nice  carriage. 

Most  lovingly, 

Kate. 

"Aunt,''  said  little  Grace,  "  I  have  found  a  new  key  to  unlock  peo- 
ple's hearts."  "What  is  this  new  key  ?  "  asked  her  aunt.  "It  is," 
said  Grace,  "only  one  little  viOxA,  please .'''' 

A  countryman  at  a  hotel  helped  himself  to  his  neighbor's  melon. 
"  That's  cool,"  said  the  man.  "  Yes,"  said  the  countryman,  "  it  must 
have  been  on  ice." 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING.  239 

Noah  Porter,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  ex-president  of  Yale  College,  was  the 
editor  of  "Webster's  Unabridged  Dictionary."  Doctor  Porter  is 
the  author  of  the  so-called  "  Webster's  Condensed  Dictionary,"  an 
excellent  dictionary  for  the  schoolroom.^ 

The  Rural  School. 

It  may  properly  be  objected  that  the  foregoing  scheme 
of  language  training  with  six  classes  is  not  practicable 
in  ungraded  schools.     In  graded  schools  in     Language 
cities  and  towns  with  one  or,  at  most,  two    '^''^'"'"s  '" 

'  '  Rural 

classes  in  a  room,  there  is  time  for  this  impor-  schools, 
tant  work,  and  it  may  be  done  in  a  satisfactory  manner ; 
but  it  is  clearly  not  possible  for  the  teacher  of  an  un- 
graded rural  school  to  conduct  daily  five  or  more 
language  exercises  in  addition  to  those  in  other  branches. 
But  the  pupils  in  rural  schools  sadly  need  this  training 
in  language,  and  some  way  must  be  found  to  give  it. 
We  venture  to  submit  a  few  suggestions  which  have 
been  attested  by  the  experience  of  many  teachers. 

1.  There  should  be  no  attempt  in  a  rural  school  to 
teach  writing  (penmanship),  language,  and  drawing  to 
six  or  more  separate  classes.     In  any  school 

term  only  three  grades  of  practice  in  each  of 

these  arts  is  necessary.    The  same  is  true  of  vocal  music. 

2.  For  the  teaching  of  these  arts,  let  the  pupils  of 
the  rural  school  be  divided  into  three  sections,  to  wit  : 
Primary,  including  say  first  and  second  year  Three 
pupils;  Secondary,  including  third  to  fifth  year  sections. 
pupils ;  and  Advanced,  including  all  pupils  above  the 
secondary.  These  three  sections  correspond  to  the  three 
school  departments  in  a  district  which  contains  a  suffi- 

^  In  dictating  this  exercise  say,  "  Noah  Porter,  doctor  of  divinity,  doctor 
of  laws,"  etc.,  and  require  the  puinls  to  write  the  abbreviations. 


240  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

cient  number  of  pupils  to  employ  three  teachers,  —  one 
for  the  primary  classes,  another  for  the  secondary,  and  a 
third  for  the  more  advanced.^ 

3.    Let  one  period  daily  be  devoted  to  the  arts  of  lan- 
guage and  writing,  —  three    periods  each  week   being 
Division  of    given  to  language  and  two  to  writing;    say 

Time.  Monday  to  language,  Tuesday  to  writing, 
Wednesday  to  language,  Thursday  to  writing,  and  Fri- 
day to  language.  If  necessary,  three  periods  each  week 
may  be  given  to  language,  one  to  writing,  and  one  to 
drawing. 

The  reader  may  not  see  how  three  sections  or  classes 
can  be  taught  writing  or  language  in  the  same  period. 
Explanation  but  cxperiencc  has  solved  this  difficulty,  and 
of  Plan.  many  teachers  are  doing  it  successfully. 
Take,  for  illustration,  writing.  The  pupils  in  the  ad- 
vanced section  will  need  most  time  for  practice  and 
those  in  the  primary  section  the  least,  and  so  attention 
may  be  first  given  to  the  advanced  section.  Some  five 
minutes  of  instruction  will  be  sufficient  to  prepare  the 
pupils  for  practice,  and  five  minutes  more  will  suffice  to 
instruct  the  pupils  in  the  secondary  section.  Needed 
attention  can  now  be  given  to  the  primary  section,  leav- 
ing ten  to  fifteen  minutes  for  their  practice.  The  remain- 
ing time  can  be  devoted  to  an  inspection  of  the  work 
in  the  several  sections,  the  correction  of  observed  errors, 
the  giving  of  needed  assistance,  etc. 

A  like  course  can  be  pursued  in  language,  though 
the  development  of  the  knowledge  to  be  expressed  may 
require  more  time  than  is  allowed  above  for  prepara- 
tory instruction  in  writing.     It  is  not  necessary,  however, 

1  For  a  full  description  of  this  division  of  a  rural  school  into  three  sec- 
tions, see  White's  "  School  Management,"  pp.  86-94. 


LANGUAGE    TRAINING. 


241 


to  develop  the  three  lessons  in  the  same  period.  The 
lesson  developed  orally  to-day  may  be  written  by  the 
pupils  in  the  next  language  period.  One  section  may 
at  the  beginning  of  a  period  rewrite  a  lesson  corrected 
in  the  previous  exercise,  and  so  on.  The  ingenious 
teacher  will  find  ways  to  keep  three  classes  of  pupils 
busy  with  profitable  language  work  during  the  same 
period. 

4.    The  language  exercises  may  be  divided  among  the 
three  sections  as  shown  in  the  following  outline : 


Periods. 

Exercises. 

Primary. 

Secondary. 

Advanced. 

First. 

Observation. 

Common      ob- 
jects; actions 
observed,  etc. 

Animals  and 
plants. 

Descriptions 
from  questions. 

Second. 

Pictures. 

Simple  descrip- 
tion   of    pic- 
tures. 

Description   of 
pictures,  with 
addition      of 
what   may  be 
imagined. 

Stories  based 
on  pictures. 

Third. 

Stories. 

Brief  stories 
from  memory. 

Reproduction 
of  stories. 

Stories  written 
from  outlines. 

Fourth. 

Letfers. 

Simple  notes 
and  letters. 

Complete 
letters. 

Business  letters 
and      papers, 
social    notes, 
etc. 

Dictation. 

Dictation    exercises   throughout    the   year    to 
teach  the  ruriiten  forms  of  language,  as  spelling, 
capitals,   punctuation,  abbreviations,   quotations, 
etc.     They  may  begin  with  words  and  sentences, 
and   pass   to   paragraphs    containing  questions, 
common  abbreviations,  quotations,  etc. 

Note. —  For  exercises  for  the  first  year  and  compositions  for  advanced 
pupils  in  grammar  classes,  see  outline  on  page  226. 

ART  OF  teaching —  1 6 


CHAPTER   XIX. 

ARITHMETIC. 

First  Lessons  in  Number. 

In  no  other  school  art  is  philosophy  less  helpful  to 

the  teacher  than  in  the  primary  lessons  in  number ;  and 

Phiioso-      yet    nearly  every  new   method   of   teaching 

phy  and      numbcr  is  heralded  by  the  claim  that  it  has  a 

Number  ■' 

Methods,  sure  philosophic  basis.  This  is  an  old  trick 
in  pedagogy,  one  that  has  been  used  in  exploiting  new- 
methods  and  devices  in  nearly  every  branch  of  instruc- 
tion. While  the  ordinary  teacher  gets  no  clear  concep- 
tion of  the  principles  proclaimed,  he  supposes  that  they 
must  rest  on  bed-rock  philosophy,  and  so  gives  a  willing 
ear  to  the  new  method  which  promises  to  revolutionize 
the  teaching  art.  In  recent  years  much  stress  has  been 
laid  on  the  genesis  and  nature  of  number  as  the  basis 
of  a  true  method  of  teaching  number  to  children.  Fortu- 
nately, these  facts  fall  in  the  domain  of  observation  and 
experience,  the  chief  function  of  philosophy  here  being 
to  expose  assumptions  made  in  its  name. 

In  another  place  we  have  fully  discussed  these  ques- 
First  Num.    tions,^  and  it  must  suffice  here  to  say  that  the 

ber  Ideas,  ideas  of  number  first  in  the  mind  of  the 
child  and  the  race  answer  the  question  "  Hoiv  many  ?  " 
They  are  occasioned  by  the  phenomena  of  nature,  or, 

1  "  The  Early  Teaching  of  Number  as  Ratio,"  American  Book  Company, 
New  York. 

242 


ARITHMETIC.  243 

if  preferred,  by  environment  and  subjective  experience. 
The  mind  discriminates  between  one  and  more  than  one, 
and  the  idea  of  number  arises. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  child's  environment  or  experi- 
ence that  justifies  the  claim  that  the  first  ideas  of  number 
are  occasioned  by  the  measurement  of  concrete     ^ot  occa- 
magnitudes.      There  are  not  in  all  nature  as     sionedby 

.     ,  ,  .  Quantitative 

it  touches  the  child  any  two  visible  objects  Measure- 
whose  quantitative  equality  or  ratio  can  be  '"^"*- 
determined  by  observation,  and  certainly  all  subjective 
or  psychical  phenomena  have  no  quantitative  relations. 
Moreover  the  quantitative  measurement  of  concrete  mag- 
nitudes is  not  possible  until  artificial  devices  for  such 
measurements  are  invented  and  used.  These  facts  show 
that  number  ideas  cannot  have  their  origin  in  quantita- 
tive measurement,  and  that  the  numbers  first  in  the 
child's  mind  do  not  and  can  not  express  quantitative 
relations.  The  child's  first  number  ideas  not  only 
denote  how  many,  but  they  are  applied  to  numerous 
objects  that  have  no  quantitative  relation.  Hundreds 
of  objects  first  numbered  by  the  child  have  no  such 
relation.  The  expressions  "three  children,"  "three 
horses,"  "three  leaves,"  "three  stars,"  etc.,  do  not  in- 
volve the  idea  of  quantitative  equality.  The  children 
may  be  of  unequal  ages  and  the  horses,  leaves,  and  stars 
of  unequal  sizes.  Indeed,  not  even  space  relations  enter 
necessarily  into  the  child's  ideas  of  number,  for  these 
ideas  often  relate  to  subjective  phenomena  and  other 
objects  that  have  no  space  relations.  Speaking  more 
technically,  the  child's  first  ideas  of  number  are  qualita- 
tive, not  quantitative.  All  objects  that  have  quahtative 
similarity  may  be  numbered.  These  facts  prove  beyond 
question  that  the  first  number  ideas  of  the  child  and  the 


244  1'^^^  ^^'^'   OF  TEACHING. 

race  denote  liow  many,  and  are  not  ratios.  The  idea  of 
ratio  is  later,  and  is,  as  Dr.  McClellan  asserts,  "  the 
result  of  development." 

It  is  an  error  to  assume  that  the  mind  cannot  discern 
the  relations  between  numbers  without  sensing  or  imag- 

sensing  i^ig  Corresponding  concrete  magnitudes.  The 
Numbers,  niind  that  cannot  discern  that  there  are  three 
2's  in  6  or  that  2  is  one  third  of  6  without  imaging  con- 
crete magnitudes  that  correspond  to  2  and  6  is  in  the 
infant  phase,  or  is  near  the  dunce  condition  in  number 
power.  Moreover,  the  sensing  or  imaging  of  numbers 
has  at  most  a  very  limited  possibility.  It  is  true  that 
a  little  training  will  enable  the  infant  mind  to  image  from 
one  to  ten  objects  readily  ;  and,  by  grouping,  a  few  num- 
bers above  ten  may  be  imaged,  but  this  imaging  of  num- 
bers soon  reaches  its  limit  as  well  as  its  utility.  Besides, 
it  is  not  possible  for  the  mind  to  image  even  denominate 
numbers  that  denote  time,  force,  energy,  and  other  non- 
space  quantities. 

Further,  the  habit  of  imaging  numbers  in  correspond- 
ing concrete  magnitudes  is  a  serious  obstacle  in  acquir- 
ing a  true  knowledge  of  numbers.     In  Galton's 

Habit  of  °  ° 

imaging  "  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Faculty,"  examples 
Numbers.  ^^^  givcu  of  pcrsons  who  havc  the  habit  of 
visualizing  numbers.  When,  for  example,  the  number 
seven  is  in  the  mind,  the  ghost  of  the  figure  7  arises  in 
the  mind's  eye,  and  in  some  instances  in  a  certain  place 
in  the  field  of  vision.  This  abnormal  habit  is  not  much 
more  undesirable  than  the  habit  of  imaging  certain  ma- 
terial objects  as  the  symbols  of  numbers.  The  pupil  who 
reaches  the  fourth  school  year  unable  to  compare  num- 
bers without  first  imaging  corresponding  magnitudes  is 
in  an  almost  hopeless  number  condition.    To  such  a  mind 


ARITHMETIC.  245 

the  rapid  and  accurate  addition,  subtraction,  multiplica- 
tion, and  division  of  numbers  are  not  possible.  This  is 
not  a  case  of  "  arrested  development,"  for  there  has 
been  no  true  number  development  to  arrest.  A  child,  if 
properly  trained,  early  acquires  the  power  to  discern 
and  compare  numbers  without  imaging  concrete  objects 
to  represent  them.  It  is  a  serious  mistake  to  assume 
that  children  are  number  dunces. 

These  facts  justify  an  earnest  caution  against  the 
making  of  the  measurement  of  concrete  magnitudes 
too  prominent   in  early   lessons  in   number. 

Caution. 

Such  measurements  have  a  place,  especially 
in  dealing  with  denominate  numbers,  but  they  should 
not  be  made  the  basis  of  number  training.  It  is  true 
that  exercises  involving  the  manipulation  of  geometrical 
blocks,  the  foot  rule,  the  pint  cup,  etc.,  may  be  made 
very  showy,  and,  it  may  be  added,  very  deceptive.  The 
limited  number  of  comparisons  possible  may  be  repeated 
over  and  over  until  the  pupils  outdo  those  earlier  num- 
ber prodigies  who,  by  their  feats  in  the  mental     _ 

ir  G  '      y  ^  Deceptive 

analysis  of  problems,  so  astonished  the  old-  Number 
time  teachers.  Whatever  may  be  the  value  of  ^^""^'^^s. 
such  exercises  in  the  actual  measurement  of  magnitudes, 
they  have  small  value  as  a  preparation  for  the  higher 
phases  of  arithmetical  instruction  or,  indeed,  for  prac- 
tical life.  Nine  tenths  of  the  pupils  in  our  schools  will 
give  only  a  small  fraction  of  their  time  in  after  life  to 
the  use  of  the  yardstick  or  the  balance,  and  those  whose 
life  work  involves  the  arts  of  measurement  will  use  a 
more  certain  process  than  inspection. 

This  suggests  the  fact  that  it  is  not  possible  to  ascer- 
tain the  exact  ratio  between  two  concrete  magnitudes 
by  observation  or  inspection,  or,  speaking  more  accu- 


246  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

rately,  to  find  the  ratios  of  the  numbers  which  repre- 
sent such  magnitudes ;    for  the  good  reason  that  it  is 
not  possible  to  find  two  numbers  that  will  cx- 

Ratio  of  ^ 

Concrete      uctly  reprcscut  the  magnitudes.    For  example, 
Magnitudes    it  is  not  possiblc  to  ascertain  by  inspection 

notmeasured  ^  ■>  '^ 

by  observa-  the  cxact  ratio  of  the  solid  A  to  the  solid  B. 
*'°"'         It  may  be  seen  that  B  is  about  3  times  as 
large  as  A,  and  hence  that  A  is  equal  to  about  one  third 
of  B.     It  is  clear  that  there  is  no  quantitative  accuracy 
-g  here.     Besides,  the  error  in  teach- 

ing that  the  solid  A  is  one  third 
of  the  solid  B  is  obvious  for,  be- 
ing separate  concrete  magnitudes, 
A  is  no  part  of  B.  The  most  that 
inspection  can  disclose  is  the  fact 
that  the  magnitude  A  equals 
about  one  third  of  the  magnitude 
B.  This  may  be  an  approach  of  the  mind  to  the  idea 
of  exact  ratio,  but  it  is  not  the  way  in  which  the  mind 
reaches  such  an  idea. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  methods  of  teaching  number 
to  children  should  not  deal  exclusively  with  concrete 
numbers,  and  especially  with  numbers  represented  by 
measured  magnitudes.  They  should  also  train  the 
mind  in  the  easy  grasp  of  abstract  numbers,  and  give 
facility  in  discerning  relations  between  such  numbers. 
In  no  other  study  is  it  more  important  "  to  iinsense  the 
The  Three  ^Jiijid."  The  initial  steps  in  teaching  num- 
initiai  Steps.  \)qt-s,  and  uumbcr  processes  include  :  (i)  num- 
bers represented  by  groups  of  objects  in  sight  (objective) ; 
(2)  numbers  represented  by  objects  not  in  sight,  but 
easily  imagined  or  imaged  ;  and  (3)  numbers  not  applied 
to  sensible  objects,  that  is,  the  so-called  abstract  num- 


ARITHMETIC.  247 

bers.     These  three  steps  may  be   taken  in  the  same 
exercise  or  in  different  exercises. 

In  the  first  year  the  emphasis  is  properly  placed  upon 
objective  exercises.  In  these  exercises  a  variety  of 
objects  should  be  used,  and  uniformity  in  the 

■'  ,  ■'  Objective 

manner  of  presenting  them  avoided.  Care  Exercises 
should  be  taken  not  to  continue  these  objec-  !"!"?'*^.'*; 
tive  exercises  too  long.  It  is  possible  to  keep  young 
pupils  numbering,  combining,  separating,  and  comparing 
objects  in  sight  so  long  that  it  is  not  easy  to  unsense 
their  ideas  of  number,  to  secure  their  easy  apprehen- 
sion of  number  without  reference  to  visible  objects.^ 

Special  care  should  be  taken  from  the  first  not  to 
confound  numbers  and  objects.  "  Show  me  the  num- 
ber three,"  says  the  teacher,  and  a  pupil  objects  not 
holds  up  three  fingers,  thus  probably  con-  Numbers. 
founding  the  group  of  fingers  and  the  number  three. 
Such  a  direction  should  be  avoided.  It  is  not  the  group 
of  fingers  that  is  the  number  three,  but  the  threeness  of 
the  group,  the  Jiow  many  fingers  in  the  group.  Care 
should  also  be  taken  later  not  to  confound  numbers  and 
figures  or  other  number  symbols. 

When  denominate  numbers  are  used,  and  they  may 
be  used  early,  the  pupils  should  be  made  famiUar  with 
the  units  of  measure  by  their  actual  use  in  Denominate 
measuring.  The  measures  may  also  be  used  Numbers, 
with  great  advantage  in  comparing  denominate  numbers, 
and  in  finding  what  part  one  denominate  number  is  of 

1  "  The  best  method  is  undoubtedly  to  build  up  the  basic  elements 
from  things,  but  there  is  great  danger  in  keeping  up  thinking  in  things  too 
long  in  the  educative  process.  However,  things  should  be  used  whenever 
they  are  needed  for  purposes  of  illustration  or  fixing  a  principle  ;  but  the 
present  tendency  is  to  rely  on  them  too  much."  —  Supt.  J.  M.  Greenwood, 
in  New  York  Teachers^  Monograph,  March,  1901. 


248  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

another,  as  the  part  3  quarts  are  of  a  gallon,  4  inches 
of  a  foot,  etc.  But  here  again  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  use  the  visible  measures  too  long.  Measurement 
is  not  an  end  of  number  training,  but  only  a  means  to 
an  end,  and  when  pupils  can  compare  denominate  num- 
bers without  the  presence  of  the  measures,  this  should 
be  done.  When,  for  example,  pupils  instantly  discern 
that  3  days  are  |-  of  a  week,  and  6  hours  ;|  of  a  day, 
they  do  not  need  to  inspect  a  foot  rule  to  see  that  4 
inches  are  ^  of  a  foot.  It  is  a  mistake  to  keep  pupils 
manipulating  blocks,  foot  rules,  etc.,  until  visions  of 
these  objects  fairly  haunt  their  number  processes.^ 

Whatever  be  the  objects  used  in  the  first  lessons  in 
number,  pupils  should  soon  pass  from  objects  in  sight 
to  those  not  in  sight,  also  to  those  that  cannot  be  visu- 
alized, as  numbers  denoting  time,  and  then  early,  not  too 
early,  to  abstract  numbers.  Emphasis  would  properly 
be  placed  upon  this  last  step  but  for  the  fact  that  so 
many  teachers   are   still  using  drills  on  ab- 

Drills  on  -^  ° 

Abstract  stract  numbcrs  to  the  neglect  of  needed 
Numbers,  objcctive  and  concrete  exercises,  a  practice 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  drills  on  abstract  numbers 
are  easier  than  objective  instruction.  Not  only  is  this 
true  of  drills  in  number,  but  in  all  branches  it  is  easier 
to  drill  pupils  on  words  and  other  symbols  than  it  is  to 
teach  them  real  knowledge,  a  fact  sadly  illustrated  in 
the  memoriter  word  and  figure  work  which  has  so  long 

^  "  Teachers  should  be  careful,  especially  with  precocious  children,  not 
to  continue  too  long  in  the  use  of  a  process  that  is  becoming  mechanical ; 
for  it  is  already  growing  into  a  second  nature."  —  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris. 

"  Let  it  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  that  these  things  are  helps  only, 
and  as  soon  as  the  child  can  work  without  them,  they  should  be  cast 
aside."  —  Supt.  J.  M.  Greenwood,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 


J 


ARITHMETIC.  249 

characterized  school  training.  Care  should  be  taken, 
however,  to  avoid  the  opposite  extreme  of  exclusive 
objective  training,  of  keeping  young  pupils  swinging 
on  the  gate  of  sense.  No  abstract  ideas  are  so  early- 
grasped  or  so  easily  manipulated  by  children  as  those 
of  number,  provided  always  that  these  are  properly 
approached  and  taught. 

The  Primary  Course. 

There  is  positive  advantage  in  limiting  for  a  time  the 
first  lessons  in  number  to  numbers  from  one  to  ten  inclu- 
sive.    Experience  shows  that  these  ten  dig-    Numbering 
ital  numbers  can  be  readily  taught  to  young     Groups  of 

,   .,  ,  ,        ,  .        .  .   .■'  .  .   ■'  Objectswith- 

children  by  begmnmg  with  exercises  in  num-  out  counting 
bering,  combining,  and  comparing  groups  of  ^^  °"^^ 
objects,  that  is,  objectively.  A  child  may  not  at 
first  be  able  to  recognize  at  sight  the  number  of  ob- 
jects in  a  group  exceeding  three  or  four,  but  a  few 
days  of  skillful  training  will  enable  him  to  number, 
without  counting  by  ones,  any  group  of  objects  not  ex- 
ceeding ten.  Whether  this  is  done  by  a  single  percep- 
tive act  or  by  separating  the  given  group  of  objects 
into  smaller  groups  and  synthesizing  these,  the  act  of 
numbering  is  practically  instantaneous  and  without 
a  conscious  process.^  Thousands  of  first  year  pupils 
have  acquired  the  power  to  number  instantly  groups 
containing  not  more  than  ten  objects. 

This  perceptive  power  is  of  special  value  in  the  first 
steps    in    number   training.     It  perrtiits    rapid  work  in 

^  In  his  experiments  at  W^altham,  Mass.,  Dr.  Thomas  Hill  proved  that 
children  can  be  trained  to  number  without  counting  as  many  as  fifteen  and 
sixteen  objects  properly  selected  and  presented. 


250  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

combining,  analyzing,  and  comparing  groups  of  objects 

without  counting,  and  this  is  essential  to  the  rapid  addi- 

.„  .      tion  and  subtraction  of  numbers  as  wholes. 

Special  Value 

of  Perceptive  The  habit  of  manipulating  objects  by  counting 
Power.  i^y  ones  must  be  overcome  before  pupils  can 
learn  to  add  and  subtract  the  digital  numbers  without 
counting.  The  experience  of  hundreds  of  teachers  has 
shown  that  pupils  may  be  trained  from  the  first  to  add 
and  subtract  numbers  as  wholes.^  Teachers  are  not 
shut  up  to  the  alternatives  of  teaching  numbers  either 
by  counting  or  by  quantitative  measurements  of  magni- 
tudes. 

The  addition  of  equal  numbers,  as  three  2's,  and  the 
separation  of  a  number  into  equal,  parts,  may  properly 
be  accompanied  by  exercises  to  develop  the 
Fraction      idea   of   a   fraction.      These   exercises   may 
Developed,     include  the  divisiou  of  an  object,  as  an  apple 
or  piece  of  paper,  into  equal  parts,  as  halves,  fourths, 
thirds,  sixths,  etc.,  and  later  the  division  of  a  group  of 
objects  into  equal  parts  and  naming  one  part,  two  parts, 
etc.     The  common  measures,  as  the  foot  rule,  the  yard- 
stick, liquid  and  dry  measures,  geometrical  surfaces,  etc., 
may  also  be  used  for  the  purpose.    The  exercises  should 
pass  to  the  finding  of  the  parts  of  concrete  numbers  not 
represented  by  visible  objects,  as  numbers  denoting  time, 
force,  money,  etc.,  and  then  to  abstract  numbers.     A 
Fractional     sccond  year  pupil  has  been  badly  taught  if, 
Parts.        2X  the  close  of  the  year,  he  cannot  discern 
instantly  that  i  is  one  fourth  of  4 ;  2  one  half  of  4 ;  2 
one  third  of  6 ;    3  one  half  of   6,  etc.     The  fractions 

1  For  exercises  showing  how  this  result  may  be  attained,  see  the  author's 
"  Oral  Lessons  in  Number,"  a  manual  for  primary  teachers  ;  also  "  Ele- 
ments of  Pedagogy,"  pp.  294-302, 


H 


ARITHMETIC.  25 1 

should  at  first  be  expressed  by  words,  and  later  by  fig- 
ures. Nothing  is  gained  in  these  early  lessons  by 
teaching  pupils  to  add  and  subtract  fractions. 

It  may  be  added  that  number  training  should  not  be 
hurried  the  first  two  years  of  school.  The  exercises 
should  be  simple  and  natural,  and  should  be  Little  Num- 
kept  free  of  all  attempts  at  logical  reasoning  ''pj^It  ^wo^ 
and  still  freer  of  a  logical  terminology.  The  Years, 
infant  has  no  intelligent  use  for  such  terms  as  "  because," 
"whence,"  "hence,"  and  "therefore,"  or  the  cabalistic 
sign,  "  /o ".  But  little  should  be  done,  even  in  the 
second  year,  with  the  factor  processes  and  the  factor 
signs,  X  and  -f-  .  It  is  evident  that  nothing  is  gained 
by  requiring  so  young  pupils  to  write  out  the  solution  of 
problems  in  zvords.  ^  The  solution  of  problems  at  this 
stage  should  be  oral. 

It  is  now  twenty  years  since  attention  was  called  to 
the  fact  that  the  Grube  method  is  not  in  harmony  with 
sound  mathematical  or  pedagogical  principles.  The  Gmbe 
It  was  then  shown  that  the  part  relation  and  Method. 
the  factor  relation  of  numbers  are  not  identical,  and 
that  the  processes  of  addition  and  subtraction  (part 
processes),  and  multiplication  and  division  (factor  pro- 
cesses) have  no  such  immediate  connection  as  necessi- 
tates or  justifies  the  teaching  of  these  four  processes 
together  from  the  first.  On  the  contrary,  the  factor 
processes,    multiplication    and    division,    naturally    and 

^The  writer  recently  saw  this  exercise  in  a  primary  class,  first  year,  the 
exercise  being  written  on  the  board  by  the  teacher,  and  repeated  and 
copied  by  the  pupils : 

"Three  oranges  and  four  oranges  are  how  many  oranges? 

Three  and  four  are  seven. 

Hence  three  oranges  and  four  oranges  are  seven  oranges." 

O  that  "  Hence  "  for  infants  ! 


252  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

logically  follow  the  more  primary  processes  of  addition 
and  subtraction,  and  this  natural  sequence  should  be 
observed  in  the  first  lessons  in  number.  Skill  in  adding 
and  subtracting  small  numbers  is  best  acquired  by  con- 
tinued exercises  in  these  inverse  processes.  The  factor 
processes  should  be  introduced  later,  and  when  intro- 
duced should  be  taught  as  inverse  processes.  The 
logical  order  is  here  the  true  pedagogical  order. 

The  ends  to  be  attained  in  the  first  lessons  in  number 
are  clear  ideas  of  numbers  and  skill  in  primary  number 
Ends  in  First  processcs.  To  dcvclop  a  clear  idea  of  a 
Lessons  given  number,  it  is  not  necessary  for  the 
child  to  view  it  in  all  possible  relations  to  other  known 
numbers  ;  and  skill  in  number  processes  is  not  best 
attained  by  mixing  unlike  operations.  Skill  in  any 
activity  of  body  or  mind  is  the  result  of  repetition,  and 
hence  skill  in  any  process  or  art  is  attained  by  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  acts  tJiercin.  The  mixing  of  unHke  processes 
in  the  same  exercises  retards  the  acquisition  of  skill. 

These  and  other  fundamental  objections  to  the  Grube 
method  of  teaching  number  have  been  verified  by  its 
^  .  failure  to  give  desired  skill  in  number  pro- 

Objections  to  *^  _  * 

Method  cesses.  School  inspectors  have  failed  to  find 
verified.  j^^  ^^  third  and  fourth  years  arithmetical 
skill  or  power  that  could  be  traced  back  to  the  Grube 
grind  of  the  first  and  second  years.  The  method  is 
now  rapidly  disappearing  from  the  primary  schools 
which  it  has  so  long  possessed.  Its  exit  would  be  more 
rapid  and  general  but  for  the  acceptance  by  many 
teachers  of  the  pedagogical  theory  that  justifies  and 
encourages  the  mixing  of  as  many  things  as  possible  in 
teaching  exercises  —  what  may  be  called  the  conglom- 
erate theory  of  school  training. 


ARITHMETIC.  253 

It  may  be  added  that  the  failure  of  the  Grube  method 
is  not  due  to  its  general  use  of  objects  that  have  no 
quantitative  relation  or  to  its  alleged  "fixed  unit."  Its 
failure  would  have  been  as  marked  if  the  objects  used 
had  been  cubic  blocks  or  the  foot  rule.  Its  weakness  is 
more  fundamental  than  the  objective  appliances  used  in 
its  processes. 

When  pupils  have  acquired  the  requisite  skill  in  add- 
ing, subtracting,  and  comparing  the  digital  numbers, 
the  factor  processes  are  easily  developed  and  The  Factor 
taught ;  first  multipUcation,  and  then  division  Processes, 
as  the  inverse  process.  It  is  not  meant  that  the  products 
of  all  the  digital  numbers  two  and  two  are  to  be  learned 
before  division  is  taught.  The  two  processes  should 
be  taught  jointly.  When,  for  example,  the  product 
of  3  and  4  is  learned,  then  12  should  be  divided  by  3 
and  by  4.  (3  x  4  =  12  ;  12 -f- 3  =  4  ;  12-^4=3.)  The 
essential  result  is  the  association  of  the  product  with  its 
two  factors  so  that  the  product  may  be  discerned  in- 
stantly, without  adding,  when  the  two  factors  are  pre- 
sented to  the  mind.  This  association  of  the  digital 
numbers  two  and  two  with  their  products  makes  possi- 
ble a  distinct  number  process,  called  innltiplication,  and 
its  inverse  process  called  division.  Addition  and  mul- 
tipUcation are  differentiated  as  distinct  processes,  and 
hence  the  error  in  defining  multiplication  as  the  adding 
of  equal  numbers.  The  adding  of  equal  numbers  gives 
a  snm,  not  a  product.  Division  as  a  process  is  not  sub- 
traction. 

The  existence  of  four  number  processes  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  they  are  uniformly  designated  by  separate 
terms.  No  mathematical  terms  are  more  distinct  than 
the  terms  add  and  multiply,  sum  and  product ;  subtract 


254  ^^^^  ^^^   <^^   TEACHING. 

and  divide,  dijfcrcnce  and  quotient.     The  part  signs,  + 
and  — ,  and  the  factor  signs,  x  and  -;- ,  run  through  mathe- 
matics from  primary  arithmetic  to  the  calcu- 
Number      lus,  and  they  never  indicate  the  same  process  : 
Processes.     ^  y^  jj  ncvcr  mcans  a  -\-  b,  and  a  -^  b  never 
means  a  —  b.     Moreover,  no  time  is  saved  by  teaching 
all  four  of  these  processes  together  from  the  first.     The 
best  results  are  attained  by  first  teaching  the  inverse 
processes  of  addition  and  subtraction,  and  later  the  in- 
verse processes  of  multiplication  and  division. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

ARITHMETIC     {Coitinued) . 
The  Elementary  Course. 

This  simple  and  natural  training  in  number  during 
the  first  two  years  will  prepare  pupils  well  for  the  mas- 
tery of  all  the  fundamental  processes  with  dumber 
small  numbers  in  the  third  year.  The  ex-  Training  in 
ercises  should  be  both  oral  and  written,  the  ^^"^'^  ^^"' 
former  being  preparatory  to  the  latter.  The  numbers 
used  need  not  exceed  10,000,  though  the  use  of  larger 
numbers  the  latter  part  of  the  year  would  not  be  a  peda- 
gogic sin. 

The  chief  aim  of  the  training  from  the  first  should 
be  to  impart  rapidity  and  accuracy  in  all  processes.  It 
should  also  give  a  clear  grasp  of  number  re-  Aim  and 
lations ;  and  to  this  end  the  exercises  should  Exercises, 
include  a  great  number  and  variety  of  simple  concrete 
problems  to  be  solved  without  any  attempt  at  a  formal 
logical  analysis.  They  should  also  include,  to  some 
extent,  the  measurement  of  lines,  surfaces,  and  solids, 
the  comparison  of  small  denominate  numbers,  and 
incidentally  the  use  of  fractions,  and  also  sums  of 
money  expressed  orally  and  by  figures.  There  need  be 
no  formal  instruction  or  drills  on  fractions  or  United 
States  money  the  third  year.  It  is  far  better  for  young 
pupils  to  catch  ghmipses  of  these  subjects  by  their  occa- 

255 


256  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

sional  use,  just  as  they  get  their  first  knowledge  of 
many  things  which  they  afterward  know  more  fully. 

There  is  great  advantage  in  the  use  of  a  manual  in 
the  third  year.  The  use  of  a  book  by  the  pupils  re- 
Advantage  lieves  the  teacher  from  much  unnecessary 
Bo°okrn Third  ^^.bor  in  preparing  blackboard  work,  this  being 

Year.  Specially  true  in  problems ;  and  it  also  relieves 
the  pupils  from  the  necessity  of  copying  so  many  exer- 
cises from  the  board,  often  a  severe  tax  on  the  eyes  and 
nerves,  especially  in  poorly  lighted  rooms.  A  suitable 
manual  for  third  year  use  will  contain  a  much  greater 
variety  of  concrete  problems  than  is  possible  for  teach- 
ers to  extemporize.  Much  of  the  board  work  prepared 
by  teachers  as  a  class  is  characterized  by  marked 
sameness  and  monotony.  Besides,  the  use  of  a  book 
affords  pupils  an  excellent  practice  in  seeing  the  rela- 
tions of  numbers  when  expressed  in  print  (p.  121). 

Pupils  who  reach  the  fourth  year  grade  should  be  well 

prepared  for  a  fuller  development  of  the  fundamental 

Number      Operations,  but  care  should  still  be  taken  not 

Training      ^^  attempt  too  much  in  the  direction  of  the 

in  Fourth  ^ 

Year         scicnccs  of  numbcrs.     Only  a  few  definitions 
and  principles  should  be  taught,  and  these  should  be 
presented  inductively.     It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that 
pupils  are  still  in  the  skill  period  of  arithmetical  train- 
ing, and  the  chief  purpose  of  the  exercises  should  be  to 
give  desired  rapidity  and  accuracy  in  computation,  and 
increased  skill  m  the  solution  of  problems  by  analysis. 
The  mastery  of  the  fundamental  operations  with  inte- 
Fraction      g^al  numbcrs  should  be  followed  by  training 
Processes.     \^  ^^  morc  elementary  phases  of  these  oper- 
ations with  fractional  numbers,  common  atid  decimal.     No 
attempt  should  be  made  to  teach  these  fraction  processes 


AkITHMETlC.  257 

exhaustively.  Only  fractions  witJi  small  terms  should 
be  used,  and  these  should  be  treated  in  like  manner 
in  both  oral  and  written  exercises.  The  use  of  the 
greatest  common  divisor  and  the  least  common  multiple 
and  other  formal  methods  should  be  avoided.  The  aim 
should  be  to  make  pupils  skillful  in  the  simpler  and 
more  common  processes  with  fractions,  common  and 
decimal,  this  being  a  preparation  for  a  more  complete 
treatment  later  in  the  course.  This  systematic  training 
in  fraction  processes  may  properly  be  begun  not  later 
than  the  opening  of  the  fifth  school  year ;  and,  since  all 
functioning  is  made  easy  and  skillful  only  by  repetition, 
there  should  be  sufficient  isolation  of  the  several  pro- 
cesses to  secure  needed  continuous  repetition  therein. 
Facility  and  accuracy  in  number  processes  can  be  se- 
cured only  by  persistent  and  well-guided  practice. 

Much  stress  has  been  laid  by  different  authors  and 
teachers  on  the  place  in  the  course  in  which  common 
fractions,  decimals,  and  percentage  should  be  order  of 
introduced,  and  also  on  the  order  in  which  Processes, 
they  should  be  taught.  Attempts  have  been  made  to 
mix  decimals  with  integers  in  written  exercises  from 
the  beginning,  but  the  resulting  gain  has  not  been 
manifest.  On  the  contrary,  the  early  introduction  of 
decimals  lends  no  assistance  to  the  mastery  of  the  pro- 
cesses with  integers  or  later  with  common  fractions. 
Moreover,  so  young  pupils  have  no  occasion  to  use 
decimals,  except  possibly  in  writing  sums  of  money, 
and  here  a  child  is  little  wiser  when  he  learns  that 
cents  are  decimal  parts  of  a  dollar. 

The  natural  order  in  which  the  mind  gains  a  knowl- 
edge of  these  different  forms  and  processes  is  (i)  simple 
numbers  or  integers;    (2)  common  fractions;  (3)  deci- 

ART  OF  TEACHING —  I  7 


258  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

mals,  and  (4)  percentage ;  and  this  is  also  the  order  in 
which  practical  experience  uses  them.     An  idea  of  an 

Natural  integer  necessarily  precedes  the  idea  of  a 
Order.  fraction,  and  is  more  easily  manipulated  since 
a  fraction  is  expressed  by  two  numbers  or  terms.  The 
idea  of  a  common  fraction  with  both  terms  expressed  is 
not  so  difficult  as  the  idea  of  a  decimal  fraction  with  one 
of  its  two  terms  not  expressed.  The  complete  idea  of  a 
per-cent  number  is  dependent  on  the  idea  of  hundredths 
expressed  decimally.  These  facts  indicate  the  order  in 
which  these  subjects  should  be  formally  treated  in  an 
elementary  course.  It  is  true  that  |^  =  .25  =  257&,  but 
this  equality  does  not  make  possible  one  and  the  same 
process.  The  different  forms  of  expression  occasion 
different  processes,  this  being  specially  true  of  common 
and  decimal  fractions. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  separate  treatment  of  common 

fractions,  decimals,  and  percentage  in  the  elementary 

Reason       course  givcs  pupils  the  notion  that  they  have 

urged  for      ^q  commou  relation,  and  that  this  error  can 

Processes     bc  avoidcd  Only  by  teaching  them  together. 

together.      jg    j|.    ^j-^g    <^^<^    pupils    who    take    up    the 

study  of  these  subjects  in  succession,  do  not  learu  that 
^  =  .25  =  25/6.''  If  so,  such  a  result  must  be  due  to 
very  bad  teaching.  It  does  not  seem  possible  to  give 
a  pupil  the  idea  of  a  decimal  fraction  without  his  see- 
ing that  ^Yo  ^"*^  -25  express  the  same  number.  How  is 
it  possible  to  teach  the  meaning  of  5  per  cent  except 
as  5  hundredths  ?  And  yet  all  things  pedagogical  are 
possible  when  stupidity  in  the  teacher  meets  the  routine 
habit  in  pupils. 

But  in  order  to  avoid  the  error  pointed  out  above, 
teachers  are  not  shut  up  to  the  jumbling  of  all  number 


ARITHMETIC.  259 

processes  throughout  the  course,  pupils  nibbling  at  one 
and  another  from  day  to  day.  There  are  many  oppor- 
tunities in  the  elementary  school  to  make  Avoidance  of 
pupils  more  or  less  famihar  with  simple  frac-  ^"o''  ^^^y- 
tions  before  their  formal  study.  The  writing  of  sums 
of  money  affords  an  opportunity  to  call  attention  to  the 
decimal  notation ;  and  the  idea  of  per  cent  and  the  per- 
centage process  may  properly  be  introduced  in  connec- 
tion with  the  multiplication  of  decimals.  Indeed,  these 
different  number  ideas  and  symbols  frequently  occur  in 
the  experience  of  pupils,  especially  after  the  second 
year,  and  incidental  attention  to  them  as  they  occur  is 
quite  sufficient  to  attain  desired  results.  The  child's 
first  ideas  of  many  things  are  caught,  not  learned  by  a 
formal  process. 

When  pupils  have  acquired  desired  facility  and  accu- 
racy in  the  fundamental  processes  with  both  integral 
and  fractional  numbers,  the  subjects  of  United  Applications 
States  money,  denominau  numbers,  measure-     °^  funda- 

-'  '  '  mental 

ments,  ratio,  and  the  elements  of  percentage  Processes, 
may  each  receive  special  treatment.  The  time  required 
for  their  mastery,  to  the  extent  presented,  has  been 
greatly  lessened  by  the  fact  that  they  have  already 
received  more  or  less  attention.  The  pupils  from  year 
to  year  have  been  made  famihar  with  the  common 
weights  and  measures,  and  their  use  in  weighing  dif- 
ferent substances  and  in  measuring  liquids,  grains,  lines, 
surfaces,  etc.  If  they  have  been  properly  taught,  the 
terms  that  denote  these  measures  are  not  mere  words,  but 
are  the  symbols  of  the  real  measures.  They  have  also 
had  some  practice  in  comparing  denominate  numbers, 
in  discerning  what  part  one  number  is  of  another,  etc. 
They  are  now  prepared  to  take  up  these  subjects  sepa- 


260  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

rately,  and  what  is  needed  for  the  attainment  of  the  best 
results  is  a  series  of  exercises,  oral  and  written,  and  con- 
crete problems,  —  all  presented  with  proper  sequence, 
the  whole  being  reviewed  in  miscellaneous  exercises. 

An  important  condition  of  success  in  this  elementary 

course  is  the  skillful  union  of  oral  and  written  exercises. 

Union  of     The  first  step  in  the  learning  of  a  new  written 

Oral  and      process  should  be  the  oral  solution  of  exam- 

Wntten         ^ 

Exercises,  ples  with  Small  numbers  until  the  mental 
process  is  clear  and  familiar ;  and  this  will  usually  re- 
quire a  goodly  number  of  oral  exercises.  When  this 
step  is  properly  taken,  the  mastery  of  the  written  pro- 
cess is  easy,  the  chief  difference  between  the  oral  and 
the  written  solution  being  the  fact  that  in  the  former 
results  are  kept  in  mind,  while  in  the  latter  they  are 
written  on  board  or  slate  or  paper.  The  transition  from 
the  oral  to  the  written  process  may  be  facilitated  by 
writing  on  the  board  the  results  in  connection  with  one 
or  more  oral  solutions.  There  should  be  no  haste  to 
reach  the  written  process.  Time  is  saved  in  the  end  by 
the  complete  mastery  of  the  oral  process  before  passing 
to  the  written. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  add  that  no  written  process 
should  be  taught  by  rule,  and  problems  should  not  be 
solved  by  referring  to  a  rule  for  the  steps  to 
be  taken.  When  rules  are  given  in  an  arith- 
metic, and  this  may  be  desirable,  they  should  be  placed 
after  the  problems}  Rules  should  be  formed  by  the 
pupils  by  generalizing  the  written  processes  when  famil- 
iar, thus  supplementing  the  maxim,  "  Processes  before 

^  "  So  far  as  possible,  rules  should  be  derived  inductively,  instead  of 
being  stated  dogmatically.  On  this  system  the  rules  will  come  at  the  end, 
rather  than  at  the  beginning,  of  a  subject.'" —  "  Committee  of  Ten,"  p.  105. 


ARITHMETIC.  26 1 

rules,"  by  the  later  maxim,  "  Rules  through  processes." 
Concrete  problems  should  be  solved  by  a  process  of 
reasoning,  not  mechanically,  and  it  will  be  found  an 
excellent  practice  for  pupils  first  to  solve  problems  by 
indicating  the  operations  by  the  proper  signs,  and  then 
performing  the  operations  indicated.  One  illustration 
may  suffice. 

Problem  :  If  3  acres  of  land  cost  $96,  what  will  be  the  cost  of  8|  acres? 


Solution. 
-  3,  X  8i  =  $         ,  Ans. 


Process. 

3li96_ 
32 


$  372,  Ans. 

It  is  an  excellent  drill,  especially  in  reviews,  for  pu- 
pils to  write  rapidly  the  solution  of  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  problems  without  stopping  at  the  time  to  perform 
the  operations. 

Experience  shows  that  it  will  not  suffice  to  hmit  the 
drills  in  analytical  reasoning  to  the  oral  exercises  that 
are  introductory  to  the  written  work.     These     Numerous 
oral  or  mental  exercises  need  to  be  supple-     „°^f' 

^  ^  Problems 

mented  in  as  many  subjects  as  may  be  prac-  needed. 
ticable  by  miscellaneous  problems  for  oral  analytic 
solution,  a  discipline  that  has  a  very  important  place 
in  arithmetical  training.  The  necessary  problems  for 
oral  solution  should  not  be  in  a  separate  manual,  thus 
divorcing  them  from  like  problems  for  written  solution. 
There  are  not  two  kinds  of  arithmetic,  mental  and 
written,  and  there  is  no  good  reason  for  putting  prob- 
lems for  oral  solution  (with  small  numbers)  and  those 
for  written  solution  in  separate  manuals.  This  makes 
difficult  the  proper  correlation  of  the  two  methods  of 


262  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

solution,  and  it  usually  demands  for  arithmetic  more 
time  than  ought  to  be  given  to  the  study.  As  the 
writer  sees  it,  the  continued  demand  for  separate  mental 
arithmetics,  sometimes  announced  as  "  the  mental  arith- 
metic revival,"  is  largely  due  to  the  failure  of 

"Mental  '  ^      •' 

Arithmetic  most  school  arithmetics  to  give  a  sufficient 
Revival,"  numbcr  of  problems  for  needed  analytic 
drill,  the  oral  exercises  being  usually  limited  to  those 
which  are  introductory  to  the  written  work.  This  has 
resulted  in  a  neglect  of  analytic  training ;  and,  to 
remedy  this  defect,  the  use  of  a  separate  mental  arith- 
metic seems  to  many  necessary.  The  needed  prob- 
lems for  oral  analysis  ought  to  be  found  in  all 
approved  arithmetics. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  oral  solutions  in  the  elemen- 
tary course  should  be  concise  and  simple.  The  reason- 
simpie  Oral  i^^g  powcr  of  children  is  not  trained  or  helped 
Solutions.  \yy  |-}^e  repetition  of  what  has  been  aptly 
called  "  logical  verbiage."  It  is  now  seen  that  the  elab- 
orate logical  analyses  of  problems,  which  pupils  were 
required  to  give  when  mental  arithmetic  was  a  school 
hobby,  were  often  an  injury  and  not  a  help  to  their 
thinking  power.  Much  of  the  glib  logical  analysis, 
once  the  pride  of  so  many  teachers,  was  the  result 
of  the  worst  form  of  rote  teaching,  the  analyses  being 
committed  to  memory  by  the  pupils,  and  repeated  with- 
out any  wholesome  exercise  of  the  reasoning  power. 

Grammar  School  Course. 

The  mastery  of  the  elementary  course  in  arithmetic, 
as  indicated  above,  ought  to  prepare  pupils  for  a  more 
scientific  study  of  the  subject.    Exercises  to  give  increased 


ARITHMETIC.  263 

facility  and  accuracy  in  computation  should  be  continued, 
and  there  should  be  an  abundance  of  problems  for 
solution ;  but  it  seems  to  the  writer  a  great 

®  Scientific 

mistake  to  keep  pupils  drilling  on  processes  study  of 
and  solving  miscellaneous  problems  during  A"*^'"^*'^- 
the  last  three  years  of  the  school  course.  This  process 
training  should  be  supplemented  by  a  study  of  arith- 
metic as  a  science,  pupils  passing  by  easy  generaliza- 
tions and  inductions  from  processes  to  rules,  and,  what 
is  more  vital,  to  definitions,  principles,  and  formulas. 
The  different  subjects  should  be  studied  somewhat  in 
their  completeness,  as  well  as  in  their  relations  to  each 
other.  No  mental  discipline  is  of  higher  value  at  this 
period  of  school  training  than  that  resulting  from  the 
proper  study  of  arithmetic  as  a  science. 

It  is  not  meant  that  every  subject  that  falls  within 
the  science  of  number  should  have  a  place  in  the  gram- 
mar school  course,  or  that  all  the  arithmetical 

Subjects  to 

subjects  properly  included  in  such  a  course    be  included 
should  be  taught  with  equal   thoroughness.     *"  course. 
Several  of  the  subjects  which  were  treated  in  the  stand- 
ard arithmetics,  published  forty  years  ago,  are  not  in- 
cluded, with  few  exceptions,  in  more  recent  text-books 
designed  for  school  use.     These  omitted  topics  include 
alHgation,    permutation,    the    progressions,    circulating 
decimals,  duodecimals,  annuities,  equation  of  accounts, 
and  several  others.     It  has  recently  been  urged  that  the 
school  course  in  arithmetic  should  be  further  reduced 
by  the  omission  of  compound  numbers,  com-     omissions 
pound    interest,    stock    investments,    foreign        urged, 
exchange,  equation  of  payments,  compound  proportion, 
compound  partnership,  and  cube  root ;  and  some  have 
gone  so  far  as  to  advocate  the  reduction  of  the  work  in 


264  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

arithmetic  to  the  elementary  course  outlined  above, 
practically  to  the  art  of  numerical  computation.^ 

This  large  reduction  in  the  course  in  arithmetic  is 

urged  on  the  ground  that  arithmetical  training  should 

be  reduced  to  the  needs  of  actual  life,  that 

Ground  for 

Such  is,  to  the  facts  and  processes  that  pupils  will 
Reduction.     ^^^^  -^^  ^f^^^.  jj^^      What  a  reduction  in  school 

courses  of  study  would  be  made  by  the  application  of 
this  test  of  value  !  Not  one  pupil  in  ten  in  the  high 
schools  will  ever  use  in  after  life  an  algebraic  equation 
or  formula.  The  same  is  true  of  geometry.  Indeed, 
there  are  few  studies  in  the  high-school  course  whose 
facts  will  be  consciously  used  in  life  by  one  pupil  in 
five.  All  the  facts  of  physics  which  an  ordinary  artisan 
will  have  occasion  to  use  in  his  trade,  can  be  printed  on 
the  fly-leaf  of  a  text-book  in  physics.  Indeed,  the  test 
of  practical  utility  in  life's  work  has  been  rejected  even 
by  the  later  advocates  of  manual  training.  The  truth 
is,  the  practical  value  of  any  school  study  depends  pri- 
marily not  on  the  iisableness  of  its  facts  in  life,  but  on 
the  general  utility  of  the  power  and  skill  acquired  by 
their  mastery. 

The    practical    value   of    any    subject    in    arithmetic 
depends  (i)  on  the  mental  training  a«fforded  by  a  mas- 
tery of  its  processes  and  principles ;  (2)  the 
Practical      naturc  and  extent  of  their  use  in  industrial 
^^'"^-       and  commercial  life  ;  and  (3)  the  value  of  the 
subject  compared  with  other  subjects  that  may  be  sub- 

1  "The  cry  of  '  Too  Much  Arithmetic  '  is  responded  to  by  the  practical 
exclusion  of  that  part  of  the  subject  which  so  long  furnished  an  unexam- 
pled training  in  logical  processes  and  pure  reasoning,  the  value  of  which 
can  be  hardly  overestimated."  —  Dr.  T.  C.  Mendenhall,  Proceedings  of 
N.  E.  A.,  1899,  p.  365. 


ARITHME  TIC.  26  5 

stituted  for  it.  The  intelligent  application  of  these 
tests  will  determine  the  time  that  should  be  given  to 
arithmetic  in  the  elementary  school,  as  well  as  the  sub- 
jects that  should  be  taught.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
second  of  these  questions  cannot  be  determined  by  the 
supposed  needs  of  ijidividual  pupils.  It  is  not  possible 
even  to  guess  what  arithmetical  knowledge  or  skill  will 
be  actually  used  or  needed  by  a  given  pupil  in  life.  The 
most  that  can  be  known  is  that  some,  if  not  most,  pupils 
who  enter  into  community  life  may  need  certain  knowl- 
edge or  skill.  The  fact  that  approaches  certainty  is 
that  the  mental  training  afforded  by  the  study  will  have 
practical  value  in  those  duties  and  relations  of  life  which 
may  be  assumed  by  all. 

In  the  hght  of  the  foregoing  tests  of  value,  it  is  con- 
ceded that  but  little  time  should  be  given  to  compound 
numbers,  the  exercises  having  practical  value  compound 
being  largely  limited  to  latitude  and  longi-  Numbers. 
tude  and  to  time  (difference  between  dates);  but  it  is 
by  no  means  a  waste  of  time  for  pupils  to  see  that  the 
fundamental  processes  with  compound  numbers  are 
similar  to  the  same  processes  with  simple  numbers.  It 
may  also  be  conceded  that  when  the  grammar  school 
course  is  too  crowded,  compound  proportion,  compound 
partnership,  and  cube  root  may  be  omitted,  or  deferred 
until  arithmetic  is  reviewed  in  the  high  school. 

We  now  face  the  reductions  that  should  be  made  in 
percentage.       The    "  Committee    of    Ten  "    urged   that 
"  percentage    should    be    rigidly    reduced    to        Auctions 
the  needs  of  actual  life,"  but  the  committee  in 

failed  to  tell  us  whose  actual  life  should  be  ^rcentage. 
considered.  As  already  indicated,  no  teacher  can  guess 
what  will  be  the  percentage  needs  of  individual  pupils 


266  rilE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

in  actual  life.  The  only  feasible  course  seems  to  be  to 
give  pupils  as  a  class  such  training  in  the  principles  and 
processes  of  percentage  as  will  enable  them  to  meet 
whatever  needs  are  likely  to  arise  in  life.  This  is  all 
the  more  important  since  the  mastery  of  percentage 
and  its  more  common  applications  in  industry  and  busi- 
ness affords  a  fine  arithmetical  training  of  general  utility, 
this  being  specially  true  when  the  elementary  course  in 
processes  is  followed  by  a  more  scientific  study  of  the 
subject,  a  view  entirely  overlooked  by  the  committee. 
It  is  now  agreed  that  equation  of  payments  and 
equation  of  accounts  may  properly  be  transferred  from 
the  regular  school  course  to  special  business 

What  Omis-  *=  ' 

sions  are  or  commcrcial  courses.  Whether  such  appli- 
Feasibie.  cations  as  stock  investments,  customs,  foreign 
exchange,  etc.,  should  be  taught,  depends  on  the  time 
that  can  be  given  to  percentage,  the  ability  and  attain- 
ments of  the  pupils,  and  other  conditions.  When 
pupils  are  well  grounded  in  the  principles  of  percen- 
tage and  its  more  common  applications,  it  requires  but 
little  time  to  learn  the  processes  in  stock  investments, 
customs,  and  foreign  exchange.  Besides,  the  widening 
world  outlook  of  the  United  States  gives  increasing 
interest  to  all  questions  relating  to  foreign  trade. 
These  subjects  in  some  form  enter  into  nearly  every 
election,  and  even  "  plain  people  "  ought  to  know  at 
least  the  meaning  of  the  terms.  One  or  two  lessons 
devoted  to  compound  interest  makes  possible  an  in- 
telligent view  of  the  difference  between  simple  and 
compound  interest,  and,  what  is  even  more  important, 
the  difference  between  annual  and  compound  interest. 
Many,  if  not  most,  notes  extending  two  or  more  years 
are  now  drawn  "  with   interest  payable    annually,"    or 


ARITHMETIC.  267 

"with  annual  interest."  The  pupils  who  complete  the 
course  in  arithmetic  in  our  schools  ought  to  be  able, 
with  the  aid  of  their  text-book,  to  compute 

'■  Annual 

the  interest  due  on  such  a  note  when  the  interest 
interest  has  not  been  paid  annually,  and  also  ^n^po^tant. 
when  payments  have  been  made  from  time  to  time. 
This  is  the  kind  of  interest  which  thousands  of  the 
pupils  in  our  common  schools  must  compute  and  pay  in 
after  life.  Many  persons  are  now  paying  illegal  com- 
pound interest,  because  they  do  not  know  how  to  com- 
pute legal  annual  interest.^ 

When  pupils  reach  the  seventh  school  year  without 
any  previous  training  in  the  simple  elements    of    per- 
centage, it   is    clearly  a  mistake  to  attempt    ^.^^^  ^^^^ 
to   teach   the   subject    exhaustively,    and    it  of 

would  certainly  be  a  mistake  to  teach  all  of  ercentage. 
its  applications  with  equal  thoroughness.  The  most  that 
pupils  can  wisely  undertake  the  first  time  they  go  over 
percentage  is  to  master  the  more  fundamental  processes 
and  to  make  the  same  familiar  by  solving  problems  in- 
volving their  simpler  applications,  the  commercial  terms 
in  such  problems  being  explained  by  the  teacher,  when 
necessary.  It  is  not  important  that  beginners  study 
the  definitions  and  other  statements  introductory  to  the 
several  applications,  simple  interest  excepted. 

When  pupils  have  received  this  elementary  training 
in  percentage,  they  are  prepared  for  a  more  scientific 
and  thorough  study  of  the  subject,  including      scientific 
a  classification  of  its  fundamental  processes,      study  of 
their  representation  by  formulas,  the  develop-      ^"^"  ^^'^' 
ment    of   definitions  and  principles,  the  comparison  of 

^  In  several  suits  in  Ohio  the  courts  have  cited  a  certain  standard  arith- 
metic as  authority  on  the  method  of  computing  the  interest  involved. 


268  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

the  different  kinds  of  interest,  the  several  problems 
in  simple  interest  and  their  representation  by  formulas, 
etc.  No  part  of  arithmetic  presents  better  opportuni- 
ties for  such  study  than  percentage  ;  and,  for  pupils 
prepared  for  it,  there  is  no  finer  arithmetical  training.  It 
is  not  too  much  to  claim  that  intelligent  people  should 
have  at  least  a  general  knowledge  of  the  several 
applications  of  percentage. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  higher  text-book  in  arithme- 
tic should  present  the  subject  as  a  science  as  well  as  an 
,,-  ^    ^        art,  and  with  sufficient  completeness  for  use 

Higher  Text-  _  _  '■ 

books  in  in  reviews  in  high  schools,  academies,  and 
Arithmetic,  j^qj-j^j^j  schools.  It  is  also  to  be  remembered 
that  most  of  the  teachers  in  our  public  schools  obtain 
their  knowledge  of  arithmetic  from  the  text-book  used 
in  the  schools,  and  it  is  evident  that  elementary  training 
in  processes  is  not  an  adequate  preparation  in  arithmetic 
for  a  teacher.  The  fact  that  an  arithmetic  treats  more 
subjects  than  can  be  properly  mastered  in  all  schools  is 
not  objectionable,  but  is  desirable.  The  time  is  past 
when  school  courses  actually  include  all  the  subjects 
treated  in  the  text-books  used  by  the  pupils,  and  these 
in  the  exact  order  there  presented. 

Introduction  to  Algebra. 

In  a  Cleveland  grammar  school  over  forty  years  ago, 
introductory  lessons  in  algebra  took  the  place  of  mental 
An  Early  arithmetic  the  second  half  of  the  eighth 
Experiment,  school  year.  The  lessons  were  largely  limited 
to  the  solution  of  problems  by  means  of  the  algebraic 
equation  (algebraic  method),  most  of  the  problems 
thus  solved  being  also  solved  arithmetically  by  analysis. 


ARI THME  TIC.  269 

These  lessons  in  algebra  correlated  with  the  training  in 
arithmetic,  and  also  proved  a  helpful  preparation  for 
the  study  of  elementary  algebra  in  the  high  school,  which 
in  those  days  was  easily  mastered  in  less  than  a  year. 

Since  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  in  1892, 
there  has  been  quite  an  earnest  advocacy  of  the  teach- 
ing of  the  elements  of  algebra  in  grammar     .,    ^    . 

°  °  °  Algebra  m 

schools,  especially  in  the  last  year  of  the  the  oram- 
course  ;  and  some  educators  have  gone  so  far  ^^^  school, 
as  to  recommend  the  dropping  of  arithmetic  at  the  close 
of  the  sixth  school  year,  and  devoting  the  next  two 
years  to  the  elements  of  algebra  and  concrete  geometry, 
a  recommendation  that  has  not  met  with  much  favor. 
Unfortunately,  those  who  have  advocated  the  introduc- 
tion of  algebra  into  grammar  schools  have  not  been 
careful   to  indicate  clearly  the  kind  of  alge-  ,.,        „.  ^ 

■'  °  Wrong  Kind 

braic  training  that  should  take  the  place  of    of  Algebra 
arithmetic,  and  this  has  led  in  several  cities  to    '"*''°'*"'=^'^- 
the  introduction  of  the  elements  of  technical  2\%Q}ax2.  in  the 
eighth  school  year,  the  course  being  similar  to  the  first  half 
of  the  elements  of  algebra  taught  in  the  high  school. 

The  result  is  that  pupils  are  kept  two  years  or  more 
on  the  elements  of  algebra  with  little  real  gain.  The 
testimony    of   teachers  of  algebra  is  to  the  ^ 

effect  that  but  little  time  is  saved  in  the  high  of 

school  by  the  year  or  more  of  algebra  in  the  teachers, 
grammar  schools.  In  several  cities  pupils  with  a  year 
of  algebra  in  the  grammar  school  enter  the  classes  in 
the  high  school  with  pupils  who  have  had  no  algebra 
but  have  had  a  year  more  of  arithmetic  ;  and,  in  a  few 
weeks,  it  is  found  that  the  pupils  who  had  algebra  in  the 
grammar  school  are  not  superior  in  the  study  to  the 
other  pupils.     In  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  the  country 


270  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

a  high-school  teacher  of  algebra  recently  estimated  that 
the  year  of  algebra  in  the  grammar  school  counted  for 
about  six  weeks  of  algebra  in  the  high  school. 

There  is  evident  disappointment  in  the  results  of  the 
instruction  in  algebra  in  grades  below  the  high  school ; 
and  this  is  due,  in  the  writer's  judgment,  to 
Disappoint-  the  introduction  of  technical  algebra,  which 
*"^'  has  little  connection  with  arithmetic.  It  is 
clear  that  technical  algebra  has  no  value  that  justifies 
its  study  before  arithmetic  is  properly  completed.  The 
practical  value  of  algebra  below  the  high  school  is 
almost  wholly  limited  to  the  use  of  the  algebraic  method 
in  the  solution  of  problems  and  the  statement  of  formu- 
las, with  some  resulting  familiarity  with  the  expression 
of  numbers  by  letters  as  well  as  by  figures.  The  use  of 
the  algebraic   equation    for   these    purposes, 

Algebra      propcrly  Called  rational  algebra,  is  helpful  in 

needed.  arithmetic  and  subsequently  in  algebra.  On 
the  contrary,  little  is  gained  in  keeping  pupils  dawd- 
ling over  the  elements  of  technical  algebra  for  two 
or  three  years,  including  a  year  or  more  in  the  high 
school.  It  is  much  better  to  limit  the  exercises  in  algebra 
in  the  eighth  school  year  to  the  solution  of  two  hundred 
to  three  hundred  problems  that  may  also  be  solved 
arithmetically,  thus  practically  correlating  the  two 
methods.  Any  good  arithmetic  for  grammar  grades  will 
contain  several  hundred  problems  that  can  be  solved 
algebraically. 

There  is  no  good  reason  for  the  substitution  of  algebra 
for  arithmetic  in  the  seventh  school  year.  No  algebraic 
lessons  can  equal  in  mental  discipline  or  practical  utility  in 
life  the  training  possible  in  arithmetic  the  seventh  year, 
a  training  superior  to  that  of  the  two  preceding  years. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 
GEOGRAPHY. 

In  the  recent  discussions  of  geographical  instruction 
in  elementary  schools  special  stress  has  been  put  on  the 
order  in  which  the  subject-matter  of  geog-    ^ 

J  o       o        Two  Views 

raphy  should  be  presented  in  the  school  as  to 
course.  One  view  asserts  that  the  study  of 
geography  should  begin  with  the  physical  phenomena 
of  the  earth's  surface,  and  then  pass  from  these  physi- 
cal facts  to  the  industrial  and  other  human  interests 
which  they  occasion  or  condition.  Another  view  re- 
verses this  order.  It  would  begin  with  human  interests, 
specially  including  man's  industrial  and  commercial 
activities,  and  then  pass  from  these  facts  to  the  physical 
phenomena  which  occasion  or  condition  them. 

Whether  in  geographical  instruction  the  teacher 
should  pass  from  causes  to  their  effects  or  from  effects 
back  to  their  causes  seems  to  depend  on  circumstances, 
including  the  nature  of  the  phenomena  and  the  capa- 
bility of  the  pupils.  Physical  and  human  phenomena 
are  so  commingled  at  first  that  it  does  not  seem  no  invana- 
possible  to  observe  an  invariable  order  in  their  Efe^en"'" 
presentation.  Moreover,  the  difference  of  Geography. 
view  in  question  relates  more  to  emphasis  than  to 
order.  One  view  emphasizes  the  physical  side  of  geog- 
raphy, and  the  other  lays  special  stress  on  the  human 
side.  Certainly  geographical  instruction  cannot  begin 
with  the  scientific   study  of  physical  phenomena.     A 

271 


2/2  THE   ART   OF   TEACH IhrG. 

causal  explanation  of  the  formation  and  configuration 
of  land  masses,  of  climate,  winds,  tides,  ocean  currents, 
etc.,  must  wait  for  the  learner  to  reach  the  scientific 
phase  of  mental  development,  and  hence  it  cannot  be 
made  the  initial  or  basal  step  in  geographical  instruc- 
tion. The  scientific  study  of  physical  phenomena  has 
a  small  place  below  the  seventh  school  year. 

The  discussion  of  the  geography  question  has  been 

attended  by  attempts  to  determine  the   subject-matter 

of   geography   by  the   application    of  philo- 

matterof     sophic    theories  as    to    the   ends    to    be   at- 

Geography.    ^^jj^g^j      'pj^g  ^^q  theorics  that  havc  inspired 

several  recent  experiments  may  be  characterized  by 
the  terms  individualism  and  industrialism.  Special 
stress  has  been  put  upon  the  theory  that  whatever  is 
taught  in  geography  should  have  a  vital  relation  to  the 
Individual-  intcrcsts  and  future  needs  of  pupils  as  indi- 
ism.  viduals.  The  writer  confesses  his  inability 
to  see  how  such  a  theory  can  be  actually  realized  in 
school  instruction.  It  presupposes  either  that  the  fu- 
ture life  of  a  child  is  an  open  book  or  that  teachers  are 
endowed  with  sufficient  prophetic  insight  to  divine  the 
child's  future.  Is  there  any  rational  ground  for  either 
of  these  suppositions .''  Who  can  possibly  forecast  even 
the  future  industrial  life  of  a  child  ^  If  this  be  not  pos- 
sible, who  can  tell  just  what  geographical  knowledge 
will  best  meet  his  future  industrial  needs .''  Not  one 
fact  in  ten  now  included  in  what  is  called  geography 
will  ever  directly  touch  the  industrial  or  commercial 
activities  of  the  great  majority  of  pupils. 

It  seems  evident  that  the  basis  for  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  geography  can  never  be  found  in  the  special 
interests  or   industrial   needs   of    pupils  as  individuals. 


GEOGRAPHY.  '         21X 

What  is  really  covered  in  this  theory  by  the  blanket 
phrase,  "the  life  of  the  child"?  We  are  increasingly 
impressed  with  the  feeling  that  much  of  the  talk  about 
correlating  knowledge  with  the  life  of  the  individual 
pupil  is  little  short  of  pedagogic  cant.  The  unknown 
future  of  a  child  is  about  as  uncertain  a  guide  in  school 
training  as  the  uncertain  guesses  based  on  the  child's 
complex  heredity.  Besides,  does  not  all  knowledge 
touch  in  some  way  the  life  of  the  knower  ? 

The  fundamental  question  in  geographical  instruction 
is  not  what  knowledge  of  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants 
will  be  helpful  to  little  John  Jones  in  his  vaiueof 
future  activities,  but  what  knowledge  and  Geography, 
training  will  be  useful  to  pupils  as  a  class  (including 
John  Jones),  not  only  in  their  outer  activities,  but  also  in 
their  inner  life.  The  value  of  geography  as  a  school 
study  is  not  measured  chiefly  by  its  industrial  and 
commercial  utility,  but  rather  by  what  it  does  to  fur- 
nish a  basis  for  a  knowledge  of  current  world  events, 
for  the  intelligent  reading  of  history,  especially  con- 
temporary history,  and,  above  all,  by  what  it  does  to 
train  the  imagination  and  to  broaden  and  enrich  sub- 
jective experience  and  enjoyment.  It  is  a  happy  fact 
that  these  results  are  reached  by  essentially  the  same 
general  method  of  instruction. 

It  is  now  generally  agreed  that  geographical  knowl- 
edge   presents    three   somewhat  distinct  phases,  corre- 
sponding to  the  phases  of  mental  development 
through  which  pupils  pass  as  they  advance  in     courses  in 
the  school  course,  to  wit :  the  observational    G^°e''^P*'y- 
or    perceptive  phase,    the   intermediate  or  transitional 
phase,  and  the  scientific  phase.     The  adaptation  of  the 
subject-matter  and  method  of  instruction  to  the  capa- 

ART  OF  TEACHING — l8 


274  ^^^^   ^^^   '^^   TEACHING. 

bility  of   the  pupils  in  these  three  phases  gives   three 
somewhat  distinct  courses,  as  follows : 

1.  A}i  oral  course  in  home  geography — primary  ideas 
and  facts  taught  objectively. 

2.  An  elementary  course,  with  the  use  of  globes,  maps, 
relief  and  outline,  and  text-books. 

3.  A  scientific  course  in  physical  geography. 

It  is  now  more  than  thirty  years  since  the  division  of 
the  course  in  geography  into  these  three  well-defined 
sub-courses  was  made  by  the  writer,  and  it  is  a  source 
of  gratification  that  the  latest  studies  of  the  geography 
problem  confirm  the  wisdom  of  the  division.  It  is  true 
that  the  "  Conference  "  on  geography  in  the  Committee 
of  Ten  names  only  two  courses  for  elementary  schools, 
to  wit:  elementary  geography  and  physical  geogra- 
phy, "  the  latter  to  be  pursued  in  the  higher  grammar 
grades " ;  but,  in  the  treatment  of  elementary  geogra- 
phy, the  Conference  formally  recognizes  the  phase 
called  "  Observation  Geography,"  and  adds  the  judg- 
ment that  "  observation  should  go  before  all  other  forms 
of  geographical  study  and  prepare  the  way  for  them." 
The  same  succession  of  phases  of  instruction  is  recog- 
nized, though  less  formally,  by  the  Committee  of  Fifteen, 
and  later  by  the  Committee  of  Twelve  on  Rural  Schools. 
This  division  is  embodied  in  numerous  courses  of  study, 
the  observation  course  being  usually  called  "  primary  " 
geography.  While  the  formal  study  of  physical  geogra- 
phy is  begun  in  the  higher  grades  (upper  grammar  or 
lower  high  school),  many  of  the  problems  of  the  science 
are  now  found  in  the  introductory  pages  of  elementary 
text-books,  and  teachers  are  trying  to  teach  these  prob- 
lems to  young  pupils  with  small  ability  for  scientific 
thousrht. 


GEOGRAPHY.  275 

I.    Home  Geography. 

Little  instruction  that  may  properly  be  called  the 
teaching  of  geography  can  wisely  be  given  to  children 
under  seven  years  of  age.  When  children  enter  school 
as  early  as  five,  as  in  several  states,  there  are  two  years 
of  training  preparatory  to  even  home  geogra- 
phy, two  years  of  introductions  to  nature,  and  sons  in 
these  made  beautiful  by  the  spirit  and  meth-  Mature, 
ods  of  the  kindergarten.  In  these  little  nature  lessons 
no  attempt  should  be  made  to  be  systematic  and  formal, 
and  it  would  be  well  if  the  idea  of  geography  should 
not  once  enter  the  teacher's  mind.  The  aim  should 
rather  be  to  give  the  children  glimpses  of  nature  "  in 
her  varying  moods,"  opening  the  eye  to  see  her  sights, 
the  ear  to  hear  her  sounds,  and  the  heart  to  admire  and 
love  her  beauty.  In  these  early  lessons,  both  the  kinder- 
garten and  the  primary  school  have  found  a  place  for 
nature  poems  and  stories  which  interpret  for  the  child 
nature's  phenomena,  and  lend  them  added  charm  and 
interest.  Several  pages  could  easily  be  filled  with  quo- 
tations from  poems  and  stories  which  teachers  have  used 
with  happy  results.  But  care  needs  to  be  taken  not  to 
give  the  infant  mind  false  impressions  of  nature  that 
may  be  difficult  to  overcome  in  later  instruction.  Scien- 
tists have  criticised  some  of  the  nature  lessons  given  in 
the  schools  as  fiction,  and  it  is  even  hinted  that  there  are 
teachers  who  deal  with  fiction  better  than  with  fact, 
since  the  latter  requires  accuracy  ! 

It  may  be  added  that  in  these  early  lessons  there 
should  be  no  haste  to  get  the  infant  away  from  , 

his  little  world  of  home.    Let  him  observe  and      worid  of 
know  its  animals  and  birds,  its  trees  and  flowers,       Home. 


276  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

the  sunshine,  the  rain,  the  snow,  the  clouds,  the  winds, 
etc.,  before  he  tries  to  fly  beyond  the  horizon  on  the 
poor  wings  of  words.  This  danger  of  haste  is  very  real 
in  cities  where  many  children  never  see  the  full  expanse 
of  sky,  the  clouds  floating  in  unobstructed  view,  the 
sunset ;  much  less  the  earth's  surface,  with  its  natural 
Nature  in      hills,  vallcys,  plains,  streams,  etc.     It  is  true 

Cities.  that  human  life  here  presents  its  manifold 
phenomena  of  interest ;  but  the  wise  teacher  will  be  on 
the  alert  to  find  nature  for  the  child  even  in  the  crowded 
city.  In  the  absence  of  all  observations  of  nature  even 
the  hterature  of  the  nursery  is  on  its  nature  side  largely 
sealed  to  the  child.  It  is  only  the  story  with  a  human 
setting  that  can,  under  these  conditions,  appeal  strongly 
to  the  city  child. 

The  early  nature  lessons,  thus  indicated,  are  at  best 
only  a  preparation  for  fruitful  instruction  in  observa- 
HomeGeog-    tional   or    home    geography.       In    the   third 

raphy.  school  year  (second  year  when  pupils  enter 
school  at  six)  should  be  undertaken  a  more  systematic 
and  thorough  teaching  of  the  primary  ideas,  concepts, 
and  facts  that  constitute  the  basis  of  geographical 
knowledge  ;  and  in  this  instruction  it  should  ^ver  be 
kept  in  mind,  that  on  the  clearness  and  accuracy 
of  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  these  basal  elements  of 
geography  will  largely  depend  his  success  in  its  future 
study.  The  teacher's  guiding  aim  should  be,  not  only 
"  to  develop  the  power  and  habit  of  geographical  obser- 
vation," but  also  to  give  pupils  a  clear  and 

Teacher's  '  . 

Guiding       accurate    knowledge   of   primary   ideas   and 
^"""        facts,  —  to  lay   a   sure    foundation    of    geo- 
graphical knowledge.     The  only  way  to  reach  the  un- 
known  is   to   begin    with    the    known,  not   simply  the 


GEOGRAPHY.  27/ 

near,  but  with  what  is  actually  known  of  the  near.  The 
pupil's  passage  from  the  world  bounded  by  the  horizon 
line  to  the  great  world  that  lies  beyond,  depends  on  his 
knowledge  of  the  home  world.  In  all  these  lessons  in 
home  geography,  the  teacher  must  remember  that  pri- 
mary ideas  cannot  be  taught  by  means  of  words  (p.  35) ; 
and  here  is  the  best  of  opportunities  to  apply  the  maxim, 
"  Never  tell  a  child  anything  which  you  can  lead  the 
child  to  know  and  tell  you  "  (p.  64). 

Among  the  primary  geographic  ideas  and  facts  to 
be  taught  clearly  in  these  lessons  in  home  geography 
are  (i)  position  or  place,  direction,  cardinal 
points;  (2)  distance,  inch,  foot,  yard,  rod,  Home 
mile ;  (3)  surface,  level,  sloping,  plane,  un-  ^^°g''^P^y- 
even;  (4)  surface  representation  by  maps;  (5)  hills 
or  mountains,  ridges  or  ranges,  summit  or  top,  slopes, 
base,  height,  etc. ;  (6)  valleys,  plains,  fields,  forests ; 
(7)  streams  of  water,  source,  course,  mouth,  banks, 
channel,  bed,  branches,  brooks,  river;  (8)  pond,  lake; 
(9)  map  representation  of  hills,  valleys,  streams,  ponds, 
etc.,  —  map  of  township  or  section  of  city;  (10)  trees, 
plants ;  ( 1 1 )  animals,  wild,  domestic ;  (12)  birds,  wild,  do- 
mestic (fowls);  (13)  fishes,  reptiles,  insects;  (14)  rocks, 
soil,  action  of  water,  etc. ;  (15)  grains,  grasses,  vegetables, 
etc.;  (16)  fruits,  apples,  peaches,  etc.,  berries;  also 
fruits  sold  in  market;  (17)  clothing  plants,  (if  any), 
building  materials;  (18)  weather  observations,  fair, 
cloudy,  temperature;  (19)  wind,  north  wind,  south,  east, 
west,  storms,  etc.  ;  (20)  the  people,  the  family,  home, 
school,  etc.;  (21)  occupations,  farm  products,  dairy 
products,  articles  manufactured;  (22)  local  trade,  roads, 
bridges,  etc.  ;  (23)  races  of  men,  individuals  seen  by 
pupils ;   (24)  climate,    the   sun,    position    when   rising 


278  THE  ART  OF   TEACHING. 

at  noon,  when  setting  —  in  winter,  in  summer,  etc.; 
(25)  the  seasons,  spring,  summer,  fall,  winter,  posi- 
tions of  sun  at  noon;  (26)  day  and  night,  in  summer, 
in  winter,  when  equal ;  (27)  divisions  of  the  day,  num- 
ber of  hours,  clocks  and  watches,  sundial,  noon  marks, 
etc. 

The  lessons  outlined  above  inadequately  indicate  the 

instruction  in  home  geography  that  may  profitably  be 

Third  and     S^^'^^  ^^  ^hc  sccoud  and  third  school  years 

Fourth  (third  and  fourth  years  when  pupils  enter 
ears.  g^^j^Q^j  ^<^  five).  This  iustructiou  may  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  few  lessons  on  the  state  in  which  the  pupils 
live,  with  map  of  same ;  and,  if  thought  best,  a  few  les- 
sons on  the  United  States.  The  pupils  are  now  prepared 
for  a  study  of  the  earth  as  a  whole  by  means  of  globes 
and  hemisphere  maps. 

It  is  not  our  present  purpose  to  sketch  the  methods 
to  be  used  in  teaching  these  primary  lessons.  This  is 
done  quite  fully  in  the  author's  "  Elements  of  Pedagogy," 
pp.  271-283,^  and  it  is  now  given  with  more  or  less  com- 
pleteness in  other  manuals,  and  in  various  courses  of 
Principle  to  study.  It  must  suffice  here  to  add  that  the 
be  observed,  qj^^  principle  always  to  be  observed  in  teach- 
ing primary  knowledge  is  that  the  mind  acquires  all 
primary  ideas  from  things  and  phenomena,  and  not  from 
words.  It  follows  that  the  primary  ideas  and  facts  that 
are  the  elements  of  geographical  knowledge  can  be 
taught  only  objectively,  that  is,  by  leading  the  pupil  to 
observe  objects  that  will  occasion  such  knowledge. 

The  attempt  to  embody  such  primary  knowledge  in  a 

^  This  syllabus  of  lessons  has  been  approved  by  scores  of  the  most  skill- 
ful primary  teachers  in  the  country,  and  it  has  been  used  as  the  basis  of 
instruction  in  methods  in  institutes,  training  classes,  normal  schools,  etc. 


GEOGRAPHY.  279 

book  for  pupils  to  study  has  always  failed  and  must 
always  fail,  since  such  knowledge  is  not  gained  from 
language.  No  author  has  ever  written,  and  no  author 
will  ever  write  a  primary  geography  that  should  be  put 
into  the  hands  of  young  pupils  as  a  means 

J  ^    r     i.  j^o  Primary 

of  acquiring  primary  ideas  and  facts.  There  Geography 
is  but  one  book  from  which  this  knowledge  ^""en. 
can  be  acquired,  and  this  is  bound  not  in  pasteboard  but 
by  the  Jiorizon  line.  In  the  child's  little  world  of  home 
are  all  of  the  primary  ideas  and  concepts  of  geography. 
It  has  been  truly  said  that  "  the  great  world  is  but  the 
child's  world  of  home  '  writ  large. '  " 

It  is  not  meant  that  this  early  geographical  instruction 
should  be  entirely  within  the  pupil's  horizon.  The  facts 
observed  in  home  lessons  may  often  present 

•'  ^  Excursions 

occasions  for  imaginary  excursions  "into  the  into  wider 
wider  world,  the  children  seeing  with  the  w<"'i«i- 
mind's  eye  most  interesting  related  phenomena.  The 
stories  read  in  these  years  will  also  open  windows 
through  which  they  will  get  glimpses  of  far-off  lands 
and  their  inhabitants.  But  when  the  observation  lessons 
outlined  end,  the  pupils  should  have  a  elear  and  definite 
knozvledge  of  the  primary  ideas  and  facts  which  are  the 
basis  of  geographical  knowledge. 

It  is  easy  in  these  early  years  to  overwork  the  tracing 
of  relationships  between  geographical  facts,  and  espe- 
cially the  facts  of  observation.  It  may  be  Relations  of 
true  that  nothing  in  human  knowledge  stands  Facts, 
alone,  that  every  fact  has  relation  to  some  other  fact, 
but  most  of  these  relations  exist  in  the  minds  of  philos- 
ophers. Few  persons  see  the  relations,  and  especially 
the  causal  relations,  of  one  tenth  of  the  facts  which 
they  know  or  have  known.     Indeed,  it  is  a  relief  to  let 


28o  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

much  that  one  knows  stand  alone.  The  constant  hunt- 
ing for  correlates  does  not  pay  either  in  mental  power 
or  knowledge  ;  and,  besides,  too  much  correlating  makes 
one's  mental  life  a  drudgery.  It  is  certainly  unwise 
to  force  infants  to  hunt  for  philosophic  unities  and 
"apperceptive  centers."  Most  of  this  work  in  geogra- 
phy may  wisely  be  left  for  physiographists.  It  will 
suffice  for  the  child  to  see  the  more  obvious  relations 
of  facts  somewhat  closely  associated.  Few  children  are 
philosophers. 

Most  teachers  may  find  advantage  in  the  use  of  an 
elementary  geography  in  the  latter  part  of  the  course 
Elementary  i^  homc  geography  outlined  above.  The 
Geography,  niaps  and  illustrations,  as  well  as  the  text,  will 
be  helpful  in  passing  beyond  the  boundaries  of  home. 
Such  an  elementary  manual  with  few  details  will  also  be 
better  than  an  advanced  treatise  in  the  courses  mapped 
out  in  the  first  half  of  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 

GEOGRAPHY   (^Continued). 
II.     The  Elementary  Book  Course. 

The  fifth  school  year  should  find  pupils  well  pre- 
pared to  begin  the  systematic  study  of  the  earth  as  the 
home  of  man ;  and,  when  pupils  are  not  admitted  to 
school  until  they  are  six,  this  study  may  be  begun  as 
early  as  the  middle  of  the  fourth  school  year. 

This  course  should  begin  with  a  review  of  the  preced- 
ing oral  course,  special  attention  being  given  to  the 
natural    phenomena  observed,  including  the 

^    ^  .  Review 

natural  objects  of    land    and  water,  animals       of  orai 
and   plants,  farm    and    mineral    productions,       bourse. 
the  seasons  of  the  year,  etc.     If  these  natural  objects 
and  phenomena  have  been  properly  taught  in  the  lower 
classes,  the  pupils  will  not  only  be  familiar  with  their 
names,  but,  what  is  better,  they  will  have    clear   and 
definite  concepts  of   the  objects.     Several  weeks    may 
wisely  be  devoted  to  this  review  of  the  prior  oral  course. 
This   review    may   increasingly  include    exercises   in 
which  the  pupils  pass  from  known  objects  to  a  concep- 
tion or  image  of  like  unknown  objects,  and  at 
last  reach  a  definition  of  the  class  of  objects 
to  which    they  belong.     Thus   from   the   concept   hill, 
clearly  formed  and  analyzed,  pupils  may  be  led  to  the 
definition,  "  A  hill  is  a  natural  elevation  of  land,"  each 
term  in  the  definition  being  clearly  understood.     From 
the  concept  hill  pupils  may  be  led  to  image  a  very  high 

281 


282  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

hill,  calling  it  a  mountain,  and  then  reach  the  definition, 
"A  mountain  is  a  high  elevation  of  land."  In  like 
manner  pupils  may  be  readily  taught  the  definition  of 
plain,  valley,  island,  river,  lake,  and  other  natural  objects, 
land  and  water,  ordinarily  given  in  the  introductory 
pages  of  an  elementary  geography.^ 

The  first  step  in  this  process,  the  passing  from  a 
known  object  in  nature  to  a  like  absent  and  unknown 
object,  is  not  new  to  the  pupils  since  this  has  been  an 
interesting  element  in  the  oral  course;  but  now  the 
process  should  result  in  a  more  definite  conception  of 
the  object  that  lies  beyond  the  horizon.    This 

Imaging  _  ■"  •' 

Unseen  will  depend  much  on  the  teacher's  skill  in 
Objects.  leading  pupils  to  image  the  unseen.  Pictures 
of  the  objects  to  be  imaged  will  greatly  assist  in  such 
instruction,  and  the  pupils  may  be  helped  by  modeling 
objects  in  sand  when  this  is  practicable.  But  it  is 
clearly  a  mistake  to  begin  the  process  with  pictures  or 
models  when  like  real  objects  are  within  easy  reach. 
The  true  order  is  to  pass  from  the  real  object  known  by 
observation  to  the  like  unknown  object  that  lies  beyond 
the  horizon  of  sense,  and  it  is  in  imaging  the  absent 
object  that  the  picture  is  most  helpful.  In  cities  pupils 
often  get  their  first  conceptions  of  objects  in  nature 
from  pictures,  but  such  conceptions  are  necessarily  lack- 
ing in  the  element  of  reality. 

In  these  introductory  lessons  no  attempt  should  be 

made  to  teach  the  definitions  of  mathematical  terms  or 

Mathemati-    to  give  formal  explanations  of  the  change  of 

cai  Terms,     scasous,  the  chaugcs   in  the  relative  length 

of  day  and  night,  etc.     It  is  not  possible  to  give  astro- 

1  For  somewhat  detailed  methods  of  teaching  the  definitions  of  these 
natural  objects,  see  "Elements  of  Pedagogy,"  pp.  283-286. 


GEOGRAPHY.  283 

riomical  explanations  of  these  phenomena  to  so  young 
pupils,  and  such  instruction  should  be  deferred  until  the 
higher  course  in  geography  is  reached.^ 

But  by  means  of  a  globe  pupils  can  easily  be  taught 
the  shape  of  the  earth,  to  name  and  locate  parallel  and 
meridian  lines,  the  equator,  the  tropics,  the  Lessons  on 
polar  circles,  the  poles,  the  zones  and  their  oiobe. 
boundaries,  etc.  They  can  also  be  given  a  general 
notion  of  the  climate  of  the  several  zones,  and  their 
characteristic  productions,  plants,  and  animals  ;  and  this 
may  be  followed  by  lessons  on  the  continents  and 
oceans,  their  comparative  size,  their  zone  belts  and 
climates,  the  mountain  and  river  systems  of  the  conti- 
nents, their  great  plains,  their  peninsulas  and  outlying 
large  islands,  their  indenting  seas,  gulfs,  and  bays,  etc., 
special  attention  being  given  in  all  this  globe  instruc- 
tion to  those  striking  characteristic  features  which  may 
always  appear  in  memory  when  the  mental  pictures  of 
earth,  continent,  or  ocean  is  reproduced. 

These  lessons  on  the  globe  should  be  reviewed  by  the 
use  of  a  good  outline  map  of  the  world,^  which,  for 
class  purposes,  is  much  superior  to  a  globe.  Lessons  on 
the  latter  being  too  small  for  successful  class  outi'ne  Map. 
use.  There  should,  however,  be  frequent  references  to 
the  globe,  and  the  individual  pupils  should  handle  and 
observe  it.     The  map   of  the   world    takes   true    form 

1  We  seldom  witness  an  attempt  to  explain  the  change  of  seasons  or  the 
changes  in  the  relative  length  of  day  and  night  to  young  pupils  in  which 
error  is  not  taught.  It  is  better  to  teach  the  simple  facts  of  observation, 
and  leave  their  scientific  explanation  to  teachers  in  higher  grades. 

2  If  the  school  is  not  supplied  with  a  good  outline  map,  the  teacher 
may  find  it  necessary  to  draw  such  a  map  on  the  blackboard  or  on  paper. 
An  accurate  map  for  this  purpose  may  be  made  by  means  of  a  stencil 
map  which  can  be  readily  secured  for  the  purpose. 


284  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

when  it  is  seen  to  represent  the  surface  of  the  globe. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  conduct  these  exercises  with  a  good 
outline  map  before  the  class,  the  chief  purpose  being  to 
form  in  the  pupil's  mind  a  distinct  image  of  the  earth's 
surface ;  and  it  will  be  a  most  valuable  result  if  these 
Mental  Map    mental  images  are  faithful  reproductions  of 

Image.  the  earth  pictures  of  the  globe  and  the  map. 
The  writer  has  retained  all  these  years  the  power  to 
reproduce  at  pleasure  the  mental  pictures  of  the  earth 
and  its  grand  divisions  of  land  and  water  formed  in  early 
childhood  by  the  study  of  globes  and  maps.  No  other 
geographical  acquisition  has  been  of  equal  practical 
value.  He  has  always  found  it  easy  to  pass  from  the 
clear  mental  image  of  the  map  to  the  conception  or 
picture  of  the  real  country  thus  imaged,  to  pass  from 
the  map  image  to  a  conception  of  the  country  itself.  It 
is  believed  that  this  is  the  common  experience  of  those 
who  obtained  in  childhood  clear  mental  map  images. 

The  oral  instruction  and  map  drills,  indicated  above, 
should  now  be  reviewed  by  the  study  of  the  introduc- 
Lessons  in  ^ory  Icssous  in  the  text-book.  If  these  book 
Text-book,  lessous  are  properly  assigned,  the  study  of 
the  text  will  broaden  and  clarify  the  pupil's  knowledge. 
It  is  always  easy  to  omit  those  portions  of  the  text  for 
which  pupils  are  not  yet  prepared,  and  which  can  best 
be  learned  later  in  the  course.  The  class  exercises 
should  be  searching  tests,  whether  reviewing  important 
facts  and  definitions  or  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the 
earth  as  a  whole.  The  knowledge  thus  reviewed  is 
fundamental,  and  the  teacher's  tests  should  be  searching 
and  thorouofh. 


GEOGRAPHY.  285 

THE    STUDY    OF    GRAND    DIVISIONS. 

The  pupils  should  now  be  well  prepared  to  undertake 
the  systematic  study  of  the  several  grand  divisions,  in- 
cluding their  physical  features  and  also  their  political 
divisions,  cities,  etc.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  order  in  which  the  two  grand  divisions  of  the 
western  continent  should  be  studied,  but  there  south 
is  a  general  agreement  that  South  America  America, 
is  the  simpler  for  study,  the  only  drawback  being  its 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  names.  This  difficulty  is,  how- 
ever, more  than  offset  by  its  regular  form  and  striking 
configuration.  Fifth  year  pupils  find  Httle  difficulty  in 
getting  a  definite  conception  of  its  bold  physical  fea- 
tures and  phenomena,  including  its  form  and  coast  line, 
its  mountain  and  river  systems,  its  vast  plains,  its  chief 
cities  (seacoast  and  inland),  its  commerce,  its  zones,  its 
prevailing  winds,  etc.  The  Andes  present  features  of 
special  interest,  and  the  location  of  such  cities  as  Bogota 
and  Quito  is  full  of  suggestion. 

Many  teachers,  however,  prefer   to   begin  with    the 
home  grand  division  passing  from  its  physical  features 
to  its  poHtical  divisions,  large  cities,  and  its        North 
throbbing  commercial  and  industrial  life.    The      America, 
study  of  the  political  divisions  of  North  America  properly 
centers  in  the  United  States,  its  most  important  country 
and  one  of  special  interest  to  American  youth.    Teachers 
of  geography  differ  as  to  the  time  which,  at  this  stage, 
should  be  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  United  States.     A 
large  amount  of   time  may  be  given  to  the       united 
study  of  the  states  and  territories  separately,       states, 
including  their  boundaries,  areas,  cities,  productions,  in- 
dustries, commerce,  etc.     It  is  believed  to  be  better  to 


286  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

study  the  states  in  groups  or  sections,  with  compara- 
tively little  attention  to  their  separate  study,  the  home 
state  possibly  excepted. 

Having  acquired  a  general  but  definite  knowledge  of 
the  western  continent,  the  pupils  arc  prepared  for  an 

Eastern  intelligent  study  of  the  eastern  continent, 
Continent.  2MCi.  Australia.  It  is  not  necessary  at  this 
stage  to  study  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  in  the  light  of 
their  historical,  commercial,  and  industrial  relations 
to  the  United  States,  and  hence  the  order  in  which 
they  are  taken  up  is  not  important.  It  will  usually 
be  found  best  to  follow  the  order  of  the  text-book 
used. 

The  pupils  have  already  acquired  a  general  conception 

of  the  more  important  physical  features  of  each  grand 

division,  and  the  present  purpose  is  to  make 

Features  and  this  couccption  fuller  and  more  definite.     To 

Political  Di-    |-j^jg  gj-j(-|^  j^Qj-  Qi^iy  i-^g  physical  features  but 

visions.  .... 

the  political  divisions  must  receive  atten- 
tion; and,  while  it  is  not  feasible  to  study  the  several 
countries  exhaustively,  their  more  important  charac- 
teristic facts  should  be  taught.  But  it  is  not  our  pur- 
pose to  attempt  to  determine  what  knowledge  should 
be  acquired  in  the  study  of  a  grand  division,  but 
rather  to  indicate  the  successive  steps  that  should  be 
taken  in  such  study,  wishing  to  be  as  definite  and  help- 
ful as  possible. 

Successive  Steps. 

1.    The  first  step  in  the  study  of  a  grand  division  is  the 

Map  Read-    interpretation   of   the    map,  —  map    reading. 

»"£■         In  this  step  the  pupils  should  be  told  nothing 

which  they  can  be  led  to  discover  from  the  map.     In 


GEOGRAPHY.  287 

this  study  it  will  be  well  to  follow  a  definite  order  in 
taking  up  the  several  features. 

2.  The  next  step  is  to  fix  the  facts  discovered,  and 
to  learn  other  facts  by  drawing  the  maj)  progressively, 
tracing  features  as  they  are  studied,  —  map  ^^p  Draw- 
drazving.  This  will  necessitate  close  obser-  '"£• 
vation,  and  will  result  in  a  more  definite  mental  picture 
of  the  grand  division.  Since  accuracy  is  essential,  it  is 
recommended  that  the  pupils  use  faintly  traced  contours 
in  drawing  outlines,  filling  in  details  as  learned.  Form 
and  relief  features  may  also  be  molded  in  sand. 

These  two  steps  may  often  be  taken  together,  the 
map  drawing  accompanying  the  study  and  interpreta- 
tion of  the  map.  Nothing  should  be  drawn  that  does 
not  represent  facts  known  by  the  pupil.  The  map 
drawn  by  the  pupil  should  represent  his  knowledge. 

3.  This  oral  study  of  a  grand  division  from  the  map 
and  its  reproduction  should  be  followed  by  review  drills 
in  which  the  pupils  should  state  in  proper  Review 
order  the  facts  learned.  This  review  may  Dmis. 
be  made  from  a  map  drawn  on  the  board  or  paper 
by  means  of  a  stencil,  or,  what  is  better,  from  a  good 
outline  wall  map.  It  is  not  enough  in  this  review  that 
pupils  point  to  and  name  the  objects  represented  on 
the  map.  They  should  also  state  what  they  know  of 
each  object,  the  facts  which  make  up  the  concept  de- 
noted by  the  name.  It  is  true  that  this  will  require 
definite  knowledge,  but  this  ought  to  be  the  result  of 
prior  study  and  instruction.  The  map  questions  in 
the  book  (if  any)  should  be  used  only  after  the  map 
has  been  thus  studied  and  reviewed,  that  is,  in  the 
final  review. 

4.  The  last  step  is  the  study  of  the  descriptive  text, 


288  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

followed  by  searching  tests  of  the  pupil's  mastery  of 
Descriptive  the  Same.  The  lessons  should  be  so  assigned 
Text.  as  to  secure  intelligent  study,  and  no  portion 
of  the  text,  definitions  excepted,  should  be  committed 
to  memory  or  be  recited  by  repeating  the  author's 
language.  Only  the  more  important  facts  should  be 
called  for.  Special  topics  prepared  by  the  teacher 
may  guide  the  pupils  both  in  study  and  in  reciting, 
but  general  topics  should  not  be  used  (p.  109).  The 
final  test  is  for  pupils  to  recite  from  the  map  which  is 
in  their  mind's  eye. 

MAP    DRAWING. 

We  are  thus  led  to  a  consideration  of  map  drawing 

as  an  element  in  geographical  training.       Forty  years 

ago  map  drawing  was  taught  in  many  schools, 

ing  as  an  especially  in  cities,  as  an  art,  and  much  time 
^■"^  was  devoted  to  the  making  of  accurate  and 

finished  maps,  the  same  being  more  or  less  faithful 
copies  of  the  engraved  maps  in  the  geographies.  In 
some  schools  these  maps  were  drawn  by  means  of  lines 
of  latitude  and  longitude,  not  only  coast  lines  and  other 
boundaries  being  thus  determined,  but  the  location  of 
internal  details.  The  pupils  by  practice  acquired  great 
skill  in  this  work,  and  finished  maps,  with  the  details 
of  the  engraved  maps  copied,  were  conspicuous  in  all 
exhibits  of  pupils'  work.  The  "art"  of  drawing  maps 
became  a  hobby  in  many  schools. 

This  copying  of  maps  was  succeeded  by  the  drawing 
of  nxdj^sfrom  memory,  and  several  systems  of  map  draw- 
ing were  devised,  and  manuals  representing  the  same 
were   published    and   exploited.      These  systems  were 


GEOGRAPHY.  289 

usually  based  on  "  construction  lines  "  to  determine  out- 
lines, these  lines  being  geometrical  figures,  as  triangles 
and   rectangles.      Much  time  was   spent  by 

^  .  Map  Draw- 

pupils  in  acquiring  the  ability  thus  to  draw      ingfrom 

maps  from  memory;  and,  in  the  examinations  '^^"'°'"y- 
in  geography,  it  was  quite  common  to  assign  the  drawing 
of  the  map  of  a  state  or  country  as  one  of  the  important 
tests.  This  was  attended  in  some  schools  by  the  pro- 
duction of  maps  in  water  colors,  and  daubs  of  color, 
called  maps,  were  often  hung  on  the  walls  of  school- 
rooms as  evidence  of  the  pupils'  skill,  and  also  as  an 
encouragement  to  effort. 

In  these  successive  phases  of  map  drawing,  skill  in 
the  art  of  map  making  was  the  conscious  end  of  effort, 
the  true  purpose  of  map  drawing  as  an  aid  in  geographi- 
cal  study  being   almost   wholly  overlooked. 

J  ^  J  True  end  of 

But  it  slowly  dawned  on  the  more  thoughtful  Map  Draw- 
teachers  that  map  drawing  as  an  art  has  small  *"^' 
practical  value,  and  that  it  has  even  less  value  as  a 
means  of  art  training,  the  time  being  much  more  profit- 
ably spent  in  teaching  drawing  as  a  general  art.  This 
view  was  strengthened  by  the  introduction  of  drawing 
into  the  schools,  since  this  gave  teachers  the  opportunity 
to  compare  drawing  as  an  art  with  map  drawing.  The 
result  was  a  general  discontinuance  of  the  drawing  of 
maps  by  copying  or  by  means  of  "  construction  lines  " 
and    the    gradual    substitution    of    free-hand 

.  Free-hand 

map  drawing,  more  properly  described  as  Map  Draw- 
"an    off-hand    drawing    of    maps    with    few  '"^ 

details."  The  maps  thus  drawn  have  their  use  as  illus- 
trations of  the  more  striking  features  of  the  countries 
studied,  but  they  are  usually  so  imperfect  in  outline  that 
they  blur  the  mental   maps  acquired  by  pupils  in  the 

ART   OF  TEACHING — I9 


290  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

Study  of  accurate  maps.  The  fact  that  these  off-hand 
sketches  lack  the  essential  features  of  a  map,  to  wit,  accu- 
racy of  outline,  led  to  the  use  of  stencil  maps  by  teachers, 
and  stencils  or,  better,  faintly  traced  outlines  by  pupils. 
The  writer  used  this  device  in  a  large  city  with  hun- 
dreds of  teachers  and  thousands  of  pupils,  and  it  was 
found  to  attain  well   the  true  ends  of  map 

Use  of  _  _  ^ 

Traced  Out-  drawing.     It  aided  the  pupils  in  the  accurate 

hnes.  observation  of  the  map  studied,  and  also 
helped  to  fix  in  the  memory  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  continent  or  country.  The  traced  outlines  used 
by  the  pupils  located  few  details,  but  these,  after  the 
contour  was  progressively  drawn,  were  filled  in  as  they 
were  learned  in  the  study.  The  maps  thus  drawn  were 
accurate  in  outline  and  more  or  less  accurate  in  details, 
much  more  accurate  than  maps  otherwise  drawn,  the 
slow  process  by  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude  excepted. 

An  experience  of  two  years  showed  that  the  use  of 

these  traced  outlines  secured  the  important  purposes  of 

map  drawing  as  an  aid  to  map  study  with 

Traced  Out-    much  Icss  waste  of  time  and  effort  than  other 

lines.  methods.  It  made  the  drawing  of  maps  a 
means,  and  not  an  end,  and  the  pupils  became  increas- 
ingly skillful  in  map  reading,  which  seems  more  impor- 
tant than  skill  in  map  drawing.  An  essential  thing 
in  the  use  of  traced  outlines  is  the  securing  of  a  critical 
observation  of  coast  lines  and  other  boundaries  before 
they  are  drazvn  and  as  they  are  drawn,  otherwise  the 
drawing  of  the  outlines  may  be  a  purely  mechanical 
process  with  little  geographic  value. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  map  drawing  is 
a  school  exercise  which  is  easily  overdone.  It  is,  in- 
deed, always  overdone  when  it  does  not  aid  the  pupil 


GEOGRAPHY.  29 1 

in  gaining  a  clear  conception  of  the  features  of  the 

country  represented  by  the  map  studied  and 

-'      ^  .      ■'  ^  Map  Draw- 

drawn.    As  an  art  it  has  small  practical  value,      ing  over- 
There  has  been  an  immense  waste  of  time  in        ^°'^^' 
the  schools  in  the  drawing  of  maps  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  making  pupils  skillful  in  the  art  as  an  end. 

GENERAL    REVIEW    BY    COMPARISON. 

The  several  courses  of  instruction  and  study,  outlined 
in  the  foregoing  pages,  should  give  pupils  not  only  a 
fair  knowledge  of  local  and  political  geography,  but  also 
a  knowledge  of  the  physical  features  and  phenomena  of 
the  earth  of  great  interest  and  value.  These  physical 
facts  have  been  learned  one  by  one  in  the  study  of 
separate  portions  of  the  earth,  and  little  attempt  has 
been  made  to  reduce  them  to  scientific  form,  this  being 
reserved  in  good  part  for  physical  geography.  But, 
without  waiting  for  their  more  scientific  study,  compara- 
many  of  these  facts  may  be  brought  into  closer  "^^  Method 
touch  and  relation  by  a  comparative  study  of  different 
sections  of  the  earth.  Indeed,  it  is  only  by  such  com- 
parisons that  the  relation  of  these  facts  to  the  develop- 
ment and  life  of  man  can  be  clearly  seen. 

The  writer  once  outlined  a  series  of  these  compara- 
tive studies  for  the  pupils  in  the  eighth  grade  in  a  large 
city,  and  the  results  were  very  satisfactory.  y^„  Experi- 
Both  teachers  and  pupils  found  an  interest  '"^"*- 
in  the  review  which  had  previously  been  wanting  in  the 
re-study  of  continents  and  countries  successively  and  in 
isolation,  as  presented  in  the  text-book. 

We  sketch  below  a  few  of  these  compara-     compara- 
tive lessons,  in  full  confidence  in  their  geo-  tive  Lessons, 
graphic  value  if  properly  presented. 


292  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

Compare  (i)  Greenland  and  Cuba;  (2)  Iceland  and 
Sicily;  (3)  the  British  and  Japanese  islands;  (4)  Korea 
and  Nova  Scotia;  (5)  the  Scandinavian  and  Spanish 
peninsulas ;  (6)  Alaska  and  Kamchatka ;  (7)  Italy  and 
the  Malay  peninsula ;  (8)  Alaska  and  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula;  (9)  Arabia  and  Spain  ;  (10)  The  West  Indies 
and  the  Philippine  Islands;  (11)  Korea  and  Denmark; 
(12)  Melville  and  Yucatan  peninsulas;  (13)  the  New 
England  States  and  Texas  ;  ( 14)  lUinois  and  California ; 
(15)  Michigan  (southern  peninsula)  and  Florida;  (16) 
Canada  and  Mexico;  (17)  CaUfornia  and  Chile;  (18) 
United  States  and  Brazil;  (19)  United  States  and  Eu- 
rope; (20)  Australia  and  Europe;  (21)  China  and  Rus- 
sia; (22)  China  and  the  United  States;  (23)  India  and 
Canada;  (24)  France  and  Argentina;  (25)  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  the  Amazon;  (26)  the  Nile  and  the  Gan- 
ges; (27)  the  Thames  and  the  Tiber;  (28)  South 
America  and  North  America ;  (29)  South  America 
and  Africa;  (30)  North  America  and  Africa;  (31) 
the  Western  and  the  Eastern  continents ;  (32)  Atlan- 
tic and  Pacific  oceans  ;  (33)  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans; 

(34)  North   Temperate    and    South    Temperate   zones; 

(35)  Torrid  and  North  Temperate  zones;  (36)  North 
Frigid  and  South  Frigid  zones ;  etc. 

In  assigning  these  lessons  the  teacher  should  indicate 

by  special    topics    the  comparisons   to   be  made.     For 

example,  "  Compare  Spain  and  Arabia  with 

Assignment 

of  compara-  Tcspcct  to  (i)  locatiou  ;  (2)  size ;  (3)  contour; 
tive Lessons.  (^^^  surface ;  (5)  latitude;  (6)  climate;  (7) 
rain  ;  (8)  productions  ;  (9)  people."  In  assigning  topics 
special  pains  should  be  taken  to  select  those  that  include 
facts  that  can  be  discovered  from  the  map,  or  learned 
from  the  text-book  if  not  already  known.     The  use  of 


GEOGRAPHY.  293 

the  same  topics  in  all  the  lessons  will  result  in  a  great 
waste  of  time,  as  well  as  in  indefinite  results.  If  pupils 
are  referred  to  cyclopedias  for  facts,  the  reference 
should  be  so  definite  that  little  time  need  be  wasted 
in  finding  the  desired  information.  It  is  to  be  kept  in 
mind  that  this  is  review  zvork,  and  the  cyclopedia  has  a 
small  place.  It  is  easy  in  geographical  instruction  to 
overload  the  pupils  with  facts  whose  special  value  is 
the  faciUty  with  which  they  are  forgotten !  These  com- 
parative studies  will  make  pupils  more  or  less  familiar 
with  physical  phenomena  which  will  be  presented  in 
a  more  scientific  manner  in  physical  geography. 

This  general  review  may  properly  end  with  a  careful 
study  of    what  is  known  as  mathematical  geography  ; 
and  also  of  those  elements  of  physical  geog- 
raphy included  in  the  introductory  pages  of    maticai  and 
most  modern  geographies   designed  for  use      Physical 

°       °       ^  °  Geography. 

in  grammar  schools.  This  study  should  in- 
clude the  definitions  of  mathematical  terms  and  a  sim- 
ple explanation  of  such  physical  phenomena  as  the 
change  of  seasons,  changes  in  the  relative  length  of 
day  and  night,  the  distribution  of  rain,  the  location  of 
desert  regions,  the  influence  of  prevailing  winds,  the 
influence  of  climate  on  plant  and  animal  life,  the  tides, 
ocean  currents,  etc.,  phenomena  which  have  been  made 
somewhat  familiar  in  the  study  of  the  continents, 
oceans,  zones,  etc.  It  will  not  be  found  difficult  to  give 
eighth  year  pupils  a  general  idea  of  the  causes  at  work 
back  of  these  phenomena,  but  it  may  be  difficult  to  lead 
them  to  see  how  these  causes  operate,  the  modus  ope- 
randi of  their  action.  Pupils  may,  for  example, 
learn  that  the  tides  are  caused  by  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  sun  and  the  moon  without  seeing  how  such 


294  THE  ART  OF   TEACHING. 

attraction  actually  produces  the  tides.^  Even  eighth 
year  pupils  are  not  ready  for  a  scientific  explanation  of 
all  physical  phenomena.  It  is  feared  that  too  many  of 
these  pupils  may  be  trained  to  repeat  words  without 
knowledge. 

III.    Course  in  Physical  Geography, 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  recommendation  of 
the  Committee  of  Ten  that  physical  geography  be  pur- 
sued in  the  upper  grammar  grades.     There 

Physical  ,  ,  c       ^  • 

Geography     secms   to  bc  uo  general  acceptance  or    this 
in  High      recommendation.     Physical  geography  as    a 

School.  _  .  ,  ,    . 

separate  study  was  first  introduced  into  the 
lower  classes  in  high  schools,  and  this  is  still  the  gen- 
eral practice,  notwithstanding  the  recent  pressure  to 
push  high-school  studies  down  into  grammar  grades. 

Twenty  years  ago  the  writer  w^s  of  the  opinion  that 
the  study  of  elementary  geography  could  wisely  end  with 

the  seventh  year  of  school,  and  that  the  eighth 

Place  in  ■'  ° 

School  year  could  be  more  profitably  given  to  an 
Course.  inspiring  study  of  physical  geography.  He 
had  not  then  seen  clearly  the  great  value  of  a  review  of 
elementary  geography  by  the  comparative  method,  a 
review  that  so  admirably  prepares  the  way  for  the 
scientific  study  of  physical  geography.  When  pupils 
enter  school  at  five  years  and  the  elementary  school 
course  covers  a  period  of  nine  years,  physical  geogra- 
phy may  wisely  be  studied  in  the  last  year  in  the  gram- 

1  It  is  believed  that  few  teachers  of  physical  geography  know  how 
the  attraction  of  the  sun  and  moon  produces  tides.  The  writer  has  found 
few  geographers  who  could  explain  why  there  are  no  perceptible  tides  in 
the  Black  and  Caspian  seas  and  the  great  lakes  of  North  America.  The 
explanation  cf  the  tides  in  most  text-books  is  faulty. 


GEOGRAPHY.  295 

mar  school  course,  the  nhitJi  school  year ;  but  when 
pupils  enter  school  at  six  years  of  age  and  the  elemen- 
tary course  covers  a  period  of  only  eight  years,  physical 
geography  properly  falls  in  the  first  year  of  the  high 
school,  which  is  the  nintJi  school  year,  as  above.^  The 
ninth  school  year  seems  to  be  the  proper  ^inth 
time  for  the  study  of  physical  geography  in  school  Year, 
graded  schools.  Of  course,  much  depends  on  what  is 
included  in  the  science.  The  elements  of  the  subject, 
presented  in  a  simple  manner,  can  be  mastered  without 
special  difficulty  in  the  eighth  school  year,  while  a  more 
advanced  treatment  designated  by  the  somewhat  indefi- 
nite term,  physiography,  would  be  too  difficult  for  even 
the  ninth  year. 

This  suggests  the  importance  of  a  clear  understanding 
as  to  what  is  included  in  the  science  known  as  physical 
geography.  We  use  the  term  herein  to  de-  Nature  of 
note  the  science  of  the  earth's  physical  phe-  the  science, 
nomena  as  developed  by  Ritter  and  Guyot  and  embodied 
in  the  several  excellent  manuals  now  used  in  American 
schools,  more  generally  in  high  schools.  Physical  geog- 
raphy as  thus  known  is  a  scientific  treatment  of  the 
physical  features  and  phenomena  of  the  earth,  including 
its  land  masses,  oceans,  atmosphere,  climate,  and  the 
forms  and  distribution  of  life.  It  presents  known  physi- 
cal facts  in  orderly  groupings,  with  statements  of  the 
causes  of  the  phenomena  to  which  they  relate.     When 

1  In  the  discussion  of  this  question  the  fact  has  been  generally  over- 
looked that  the  7iinth  school  year  is  in  several  states- the  last  year  in 
the  grammar  school,  while  in  other  states  the  ninth  school  year  is  the  first 
year  in  the  high  school.  If  Latin,  Algebra,  and  Physical  Geography  are 
begun  in  the  ninth  school  year,  in  some  schools  they  will  be  begun  in  the 
grammar  school,  in  others  in  the  high  school. 


296  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

properly  taught,  physical  geography  has  been  an  at- 
tractive and  fruitful  study. 

It  is  evident  that  there  are  no  fixed  limits  to  such  a 

science.     Physiographers  are  engaged  in  an  earnest  in- 

No Fixed      vestigation  of  "the  physical  environment  of 

Limits.  man,"  and  new  facts  are  being  discovered  and 
old  facts  explained.  These  facts  seem  so  simple  to  those 
who  have  devoted  years  to  their  study,  that  no  reason 
appears  to  them  why  they  should  not  at  once  be  taught 
to  the  children  in  the  schools.  It  should,  however,  be 
kept  in  mind  that  the  elements  of  other  physical  sciences 
must  have  a  place  in  the  high  school ;  and  that  this 
wealth  of  subject-matter  requires  careful  limitation  in 
school  instruction.  There  is  danger  of  overcrowding 
the  school  course  in  geography. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  successful  teaching  of  physi- 
cal geography  requires  not  only  a  good  text-book,  but 
Teaching  Other  adequate  teaching  appliances,  such  as 
Appliances,  physical  maps,  globes,  charts,  photographs, 
lantern  and  lantern  slides,  models,  etc.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  the  pupil's  success  will  depend  largely  on 
the  power  and  habit  of  accurate  observation  which  he 
brings  to  the  study.  Memoriter  work  in  such  a  study 
is  failure. 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 

OTHER    BRANCHES. 

In  the  eight  precedmg  chapters  the  principles  of 
teaching  have  been  practically  applied  in  methods  of 
teaching  three  of  the  fundamental  school  arts,  to  wit : 
reading,  language,  and  number,  and  one  knowledge 
branch,  geography.  It  must  suffice  in  this  closing 
chapter  to  give  a  few  suggestions  as  to  the  teaching 
of  other  branches. 

Biography. 

There  seems  to  be  a  general  agreement  that  biography 
has  properly  an  earlier  place  in  school  instruction  than 
history.  The  life  of  a  person  appeals  to  the 
interest  of  a  child  much  earlier  than  the  life  piace  than 
of  a  nation  or  people.  Instruction  of  a  most  history, 
vital  character  may  be  given  to  children  by  means  of 
the  life  stories  of  individuals  who  have  been  conspicu- 
ous in  the  progress  of  the  race.  Such  instruction  has 
an  almost  continuous  place  in  the  elementary  course. 
But  it  is  not  clear  that  biography  can  be  made  a  regular 
study  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  school  years  as  a  prepa- 
ration for  history,  as  has  been  suggested.  Biography 
that  is  a  part  of  history  is  best  presented  in  con- 
nection with  historic  events,  as  will  be  shown  later. 
Historic  characters  are  usually  best  seen  in  their  historic 
setting. 

297 


298  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

When  biography  is  taught  in  advance  of  history,  no 
attempt  should  be  made  to  force  it  to  teach  history. 
Relation  to  History  propcr  records  the  events  in  the 
History.  development  of  national  life  ;  ^  and  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  lead  children  to  see  the  life  of  a  nation  or  a 
people  in  the  life  of  an  individual.  This  is  especially 
true  of  people  who  are  separated  by  caste  into  distinct 
classes  with  few  common  life  elements.  One  of  the 
most  intelligent  superintendents  of  the  country  told 
the  writer  that  his  teachers  were  able  to  get  little  his- 
toric knowledge  out  of  the  biographies  that  were  made 
a  part  of  the  course  of  study.  They  were  obliged  to 
study  the  history  of  each  country  represented,  and 
then  teach  the  historic  facts  thus  learned  into  the 
biographies.  It  would  seem  better  to  let  biography 
tell  its  own  story,  with  its  historic  side  lights.  In  due 
time  the  pupils  must  do  what  their  teachers  do,  to  wit : 
go  to  history  for  historic  knowledge.  It  is  not  meant 
that  biography  throws  no  light  on  history.  On  the 
contrary,  the  life  of  a  historic  character  may  disclose 
important  events  in  the  life  of  a  nation. 

Our  next  suggestion  is  that  biography  should  afford 
pupils  early  training  in  getting  information  from  books  ; 
Book  Train-  ^"d,  iu  grammar  grades,  biographical  knowl- 
ing.  edge  should  be  obtained  largely  in  this  way. 
Preparatory  instruction  may  be  needed  to  interest 
pupils  in  the  person  whose  biography  is  to  be  studied, 
and  also  to  indicate  the  facts  in  his  life  most  important  to 
know ;  but  pupils  should  be  sent  increasingly  to  books  for 
the  life  stories  with  which  they  are  to  become  familiar. 

1  "  While  biography  narrates  the  career  of  individuals,  civil  history 
records  the  career  of  nations."  —  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  in  "  Report  of  Com- 
mittee of  Fifteen." 


OTHER  BRANCHES.  299 

United  States  History. 

The  history  of  the  United  States  may  be  systemati- 
cally studied  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  school  years, 
with  earlier  introductory  lessons.  The  first  pj^st  Year's 
year  of  the  course,  in  which  the  periods  of  dis-  course, 
covery,  settlement,  and  colonization  are  studied,  will 
contain  a  considerable  element  of  biography.  This 
early  history  of  the  country  abounds  in  heroic  deeds 
and  perilous  adventures,  which  shed  light  upon  the 
historic  record.  The  text -book  in  history  should  be 
supplemented  by  brief  manuals  of  biography  to  be 
read  by  the  pupils.  Due  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  location  of  events  by  means  of  maps.  This  is 
readily  accomplished  by  the  use  of  stencil  maps  drawn 
on  the  board  and  traced  outlines  to  be  filled  by  the 
pupils. 

The  first  year  in  history  may  thus  be  made  an  ex- 
cellent preparation  for  the  study  of  the  history  of  the 
nation,  beginning  with  the  successful  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence and  the  organization  of  the  national  govern- 
ment. 

The  study  of  history  presents  an  opportunity  for  the 
needed  training  of  pupils  in  book  mastery ;  next  to 
reading,   the   best   opportunity   in    grammar 

,  TT-  •  •  1         r        Training 

grades.     History  is  a  systematic    record    of     afforded  in 
events  in  the  progress  of  nations  and  peoples,     ^°°^  ^'^^- 
and  it  is  only  by  studying  this  record  that  a 
knowledge    of    past   history    is    learned.     The    key    to 
recorded  history  is  the  ability  to  obtain  accurate  knowl- 
edge from  the  printed  page,  and,  to  this  end,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  pupils  be   trained   in   the    study   of    historic 
manuals.     An  important  aim  in  teaching  history  in  the 


300  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

grammar  school  is  the  guiding  of  pupils  in  such  book 
study.  Much  must  be  done  by  the  teacher  in  the  way 
of  preparing  pupils  for  the  successful  study  of  books, 
but  nothing  should  be  done  that  relieves  them  from  the 
task  of  getting  historic  knowledge  from  the  printed 
page.  History  is  the  one  study  par  excellence  to  give 
pupils  in  the  upper  grammar  grades  effective  training 
in  book  mastery. 

It  is  not  meant  that  there  should  be  no  oral  instruc- 
tion in  history.  On  the  contrary  much  oral  instruction 
will  be  needed  to  prepare  pupils  for  successful  book 
study ;  and,  besides,  the  text-book  used  will  need  to  be 
supplemented  by  oral  lessons,  as  well  as  by  graphic 
illustrations,  such  as  engravings,  chromos,  lantern-slides, 
etc. 

Whatever  may  be  the  subject-matter  of  history  taught 
in  elementary  schools,  special  pains  should  be  taken  to 
Historic  give  pupils  clear  and  definite  historic  con- 
conceptions.  ccptions.  It  is  Surprising  that  so  many  pupils 
study  history  without  really  knowing  "  what  it  is  about." 
A  young  girl  lost  in  Greek  history,  when  asked  for  the 
reason,  replied,  "It  is  all  Greek  to  me." 

This  discloses  a  real  difficulty  in  teaching  history  to 
children.  The  events  narrated  lie  outside  of  their  ex- 
perience. Historic  conceptions  have  a  large  content, 
too  large  for  young  minds  to  grasp  and  handle.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  the  history  of  a  people  is  more  read- 
ily understood  by  the  young  than  the  record  of  govern- 
mental or  state  affairs.  Hobbes's  conception  of  the 
state  as  a  Leviathan,  endowed  with  individuality  and 
organized  self-activity,  suggests  the  difficulty  of  the 
child  in  grasping  a  true  notion  of  the  state  or  nation. 
A  conception  of  the  state  as  a  "colossal  man,"  or  even 


OTHER  BRANCHES.  301 

as  a  "collective  man  "  is  high  thinking  for  a  child.  The 
state  is  too  often  the  "  unknown  god "  of  which  the 
young  pupil  gets  at  best  only  uncertain  glimpses. 

Civics. 

It  is  a  question  whether  a  methodical  study  of  civics 
should  be  undertaken  below  the  high  school  or,  more 
definitely,  below  the  ninth  school   year.     It 

•'  Civics  be- 

is  true  that  there  are  many  facts  relating  to  low  High 
government  that  lie  in  the  experience  and  school, 
under  the  observation  of  children.  They  are  the  sub- 
jects of  parental  control  (or  ought  to  be)  and  of  the 
authority  of  the  school  as  personified  immediately  by 
the  teacher  and  more  remotely  by  the  principal,  the 
superintendent,  and  the  school  board.  If  they  live  in 
the  city,  they  become  familiar  with  government  as  con- 
cretely represented  by  the  policeman,  and  more  vaguely 
by  other  city  officials  as  the  mayor,  the  police  judge, 
etc.  If  they  live  in  the  country,  they  may  at  least  hear 
of  the  constable  and  the  justice  of  the  peace.  In  these 
and  other  ways,  children  come  in  touch  with  authority, 
and,  with  proper  instruction,  they  will  come  to  know 
many  facts  that  belong  to  the  observational  phase  of 
civil  government.  It  is,  however,  doubtful  if  anything 
is  gained  by  early  attempts  to  make  these  facts  the 
basis  for  a  formal  study  of  state  and  national  govern- 
ments. The  pupils  will  be  better  prepared  for  such 
instruction  later  in  the  course. 

We  are  aware  that  this  early  instruction  in  civil  gov- 
ernment is  urged  on  the  ground  that  it  is  a 
preparation  for  citizenship ;  and,  since  many    struction  in 
pupils  do  not  remain  in  school  to  the  last  year       Civics, 
in  the  grammar  course,  it  is  important  that  instruction  in 


302  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

civics  be  given  early.  It  is  easy  to  claim  too  much  for 
the  value  of  such  early  instruction.  The  knowledge 
thus  acquired  by  children  is  too  indefinite  to  be  abiding ; 
and,  besides,  less  than  half  of  the  pupils  in  the  grammar 
schools  of  the  country  will  ever  cast  a  ballot  or  other- 
wise actually  participate  in  government  affairs.  It  is 
conceded  that  all  intelligent  persons,  whether  men  or 
women,  should  have  a  general  knowledge  of  the  gov- 
ernment under  which  they  live ;  but  it  does  not  follow 
that,  to  this  end,  civics  must  be  formally  taught  to 
children.  They  may  learn  from  time  to  time  facts  re- 
specting local  and  state  government,  the  duties  of  citizens, 
etc.,  but  anything  like  a  systematic  study  of  civil  govern- 
ment cannot  well  be  undertaken  below  the  high  school. 
It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  study  of  the  national 
government  should  be  begun  in  connection  with  United 
States  history.     The  organization  of  the  gov- 

Study    of  .7  t>  £> 

National  cmmcnt  and  the  subsequent  adoption  of  the 
Government.  Constitution  afford  an  opportunity  for  the 
pupils  to  obtain  an  intelligent  view  of  what  may  be 
called  the  mechanism  of  the  government,  including  its 
three  departments,  —  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial, 
—  the  manner  in  which  they  are  severally  constituted,  and 
their  general  duties.  But  experience  shows  that  there 
are  many  questions  on  the  very  face  of  the  constitution 
that  are  beyond  the  ability  of  even  high  school  pupils,  — 
to  say  nothing  of  the  theory  of  government,  including 
the  origin  and  nature  of  the  state,  the  principle  of  sov- 
ereignty, the  theory  of  the  separation  of  the  powers, 
etc.^     The  limitations  of  the  ability  of  pupils  in  elemen- 

1  It  was  the  writer's  duty  for  several  years  to  teach  the  United  States 
Constitution  to  successive  senior  classes  in  college.  There  were  students 
in  even  these  classes  who  were  not  equal  to  the  study. 


OTHER  BRANCHES.  303 

tary  schools  should  always  be  considered  in  determining 
the  subject-matter  of  instruction.  Nearly  every  school 
study  has  phases  that  correspond  to  the  successive 
phases  of  mental  development. 

Economics. 

The  introduction  of  the  study  of  economics  in  elemen- 
tary schools  has  few  advocates  among  those  who  are 
students  of 'the  science,  and  especially  those 

11  11  ■  •  T  •  1  1  Objections 

who  have  had  experience  m  teachmg  the  sub-  to  study  be- 
ject  in  college  or  university.  There  are  two  '°^  "'^^^ 
objections  to  the  attempt  to  teach  the  subject 
below  the  high  school.  These  are  (i)  the  small  value 
of  what  can  be  taught  to  elementary  pupils,  and  (2)  the 
small  number  of  elementary  teachers  who  are  compe- 
tent to  teach  even  the  elements  of  the  science.  In 
support  of  the  first  objection  it  may  be  said  that  not  a 
few  of  the  so-called  essential  principles  of  the  science 
are  based  on  unproved  assumptions  or  are  generalized 
from  partial  and  insufficient  data.  It  is  difficult  to  pre- 
sent a  theory  of  wealth  or  money  or  taxes  or  wages  that 
is  not  called  in  question  by  students  of\.n"onomios. 
Many  of  the  commonplaces  given  in  elementary  manu- 
als for  schools  are  not  true  under  all  economic  condi- 
tions. Moreover,  all  that  will  be  of  any  practical  value 
to  so  young  pupils  can  be  taught  best  incidentally,  and 
usually  in  connection  with  related  historic  events.  The 
second  objection  is  not  likely  to  be  removed  by  institute 
instruction  on  the  subject.  It  has  been  wisely  said  that 
no  teacher  ought  to  undertake  this  work  "  who  has  not 
had  some  training  in  economic  reasoning." 

It  is  believed  to  be  wiser  to  leave  instruction  in  even 


304  THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 

the   elements   of   economics  to   the    high    school,    and 
the  development  of  the  science  to  the  university.     Con- 
gj  troverted  subjects,  which  are  often  political 

in  High       questions,  may  wisely  be  left  to  the  press,  to 
the  platform,  and  to  economic  theorists.     It  is 
not  possible  to  settle  all  vital  questions  by  the  instruc- 
tion of  children  in  the  public  schools. 

Physiology. 

It  has  widely  been  assumed  by  those  who  arrange 

elementary  courses  of  study  that  a  knowledge  of  anat- 

Assump-     omy  and  physiology  is  of  vital  importance, 

School^     and  that  the  earlier  this  knowledge  is  taught 

Course,      to  children   the  better.     These  assumptions 

are  urged  with  all  the  assurance  that  would  be  befitting 

if  they  were  axioms  of  school  training;  and,  so  far  as  we 

are  aware,  they  have  rarely  been  questioned.     It  seems 

to  be  believed  that  there  is  health-giving  power  in  a 

knowledge  of  the  structure  and  functions  of  the  organs 

of  the  human  body,  a  belief  that   has  put  instruction 

in  physioloi^y  in  nearly  all  grades  of  school. 

It  ma}-  'nok  like  presumption  for  the  writer  to  express 
the  belief  that  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  and  func- 
tions of  the  internal  organs  of  the  body  is  of 

Anatomy  ^  -' 

not  a  Child's  no  practical  value  to  young  children.  Neces- 
*"  ^'  sary  hygienic  information  may  be  taught  to 
children  long  before  they  can  comprehend  the  physio- 
logical reasons  for  the  facts  learned.  The  practical  rules 
relating  to  cleanliness,  pure  air,  exercise,  sleep,  posture, 
temperance,  etc.,  can  be  effectively  taught  children  in 
advance  of  anatomy.  Besides,  the  true  aim  of  such  in- 
struction in  the  lower  grades  of  school  is  to  train  chil- 


OTHER  BRANCHES.  305 

dren  in  hygienic  habits,  in  a  proper  observance  of  the 
laws  of  health.  What  is  vitally  needed  in  all  this 
training  is  a  realization  of  the  fact  that  hygiene  is  an 
art  to  be  practiced,  not  a  science  to  be  studied.  Good 
health  is  a  vital  end  in  school  training. 

We  have  long  been  of  the  opinion  that  anatomy, 
especially  the  anatomy  of  the  vital  organs,  should  not 
be  taught  to  children  under  twelve  years  of  Anatom 
age,  an  opinion  that  has  been  strengthened  of  the  vital 
by  experience  and  observation.^  This  view  "^^^"^ 
involves  the  fear  that  early  instruction  may  result  in 
habits  of  introspection,  and  thus  interfere  with  the 
normal  action  of  the  vital  organs  and  disturb  vital  pro- 
cesses, this  being  a  certain  danger  in  the  case  of  chil- 
dren who  are  morbidly  sensitive.  This  evil  is  aggravated 
by  the  use  of  charts  and  models  as  illustrations,  par- 
ticularly those  that  represent  diseased  conditions  of 
certain  organs,  as  the  brain,  heart,  and  stomach.  Ana- 
tomical charts  are  in  use  in  some  rural  schools,  with 
pupils  five  years  old  and  upwards,  that  ought  not  to  be 
shown  to  young  children.  A  knowledge  of  the  struc- 
ture and  functions  of  the  vital  organs  has  no  value  to 
children  that  justifies  the  early  introduction  of  these 
subjects  into  the  school  course. 

The  systematic  study  of  physiology  properly  falls  in 
the  two  upper  grammar  grades,  when  a  good  manual 
can  be  used  with  advantage.     All  instruction 

^  •       1  1  Book  Study. 

in  physiology  and  hygiene  of  practical  value 
in  lower  grades  can  best  be  taught  orally.     The  use  of 
a  manual,  when  the  systematic  study  of  the  science  is 
undertaken,    will   afford    an    excellent    opportunity  for 

1  "  Elements  of  Pedagogy,"  p.  158. 
ART   OF   TEACHING  —  20 


306  THE  ART   OF  TEACHING. 

giving  grammar  pupils  needed  training  in  the  art  of 
gaining  knowledge  from  books.  To  this  end,  the 
pupils  must  be  properly  prepared  for  book  study  by 
oral  instruction  and  observation  ;  and,  to  secure  such 
study,  they  must  be  held  by  searching  recitations  to  the 
mastery  of  assigned  lessons. 


INDEX. 


N.  B.  —  The  figures  refer  to  pages. 


A-b-c  method,  the,  i86. 
Abstract  numbers,  246,  248. 
Abuses  of  class  system,  139. 
Accuracy  and  rapidity  in  arithmetic, 

255- 

Acquisition  of  knowledge,  29. 

Action,  46,  81. 

Activity,  occasioning,  39;  self,  10, 
47;   the  pupil's,  10. 

Adaptation  of  instruction  to  capa- 
bility of  learner,  58. 

Adults  and  infants,  58. 

Advantages  of  class  instruction,  138. 

Aimless  drills,  87. 

Aimless  teaching,  22,  23. 

Algebra,  introduction  to,  268. 

Allied  subjects,  78. 

American  education,  problem  in, 
119. 

Amount  of  written  work,  165. 

Analysis  the  initial  process,  73. 

Analytic  methods  of  instruction,  72. 

Anatomy  not  a  child's  study,  304. 

Ancillary  muscles,  the,  162. 

Annual  interest,  267. 

Appliances  in  physical  geography, 
teaching,  296. 

Application  of  knowledge,  29. 

Application  or  use  as  a  test,  91. 

Appropriation,  in  bodily  growth, 
135;  individual  power  of,  134; 
self-activity  in,  135. 

Aristotle,  47. 

Arithmetic,  242-270  (see  Number)^ 
255-268;      advantage     of     usin^ 
book   in   third    year,    256;     aim, 
rapidity,  and  accuracy  in  all  pro- 
cesses,     255  ;     algebra     in     the 


grammar  school,  269;  algebra, 
introduction  to,  268-270;  algebra 
not  lower  than  the  eighth  school 
year,  270;  an  early  Cleveland  ex- 
periment, 268;  annual  interest 
important,  267;  applications  of 
fundamental  processes,  259;  avoid- 
ance of  alleged  error  easy,  259; 
compound  numbers,  265;  first 
lessons  in  number,  245-254  (see 
Nti?itber);  first  study  of  percent- 
age, 267;  fraction  processes  in 
fifth  year,  256;  fractions  with 
small  terms,  257;  grammar  school 
course,  262-268;  importance  of 
the  scientific  study  of  arithmetic, 
263;  indicated  solution  of  prob- 
lems, 261 ;  introduction  of  techni- 
cal algebra  a  mistake,  269;  logical 
verbiage  to  be  avoided,  262;  no 
mental  discipline  of  higher  value, 
263;  number  ideas  caught,  259; 
numerous  problems  for  oral  solu- 
tion, 261;  objections  to  the  nib- 
bling plan,  259;  order  of  processes, 
257;  oral  analysis  to  be  simple, 
262;  rational  algebra  needed, 
270;  reasons  urged  for  teaching 
all  processes  together,  258;  re- 
ductions proposed  in  percentage, 
265;  rules  through  processes, 
260;  scientific  arithmetic  needed, 
267;  scientific  study  of  percent- 
age, 267;  subjects  in  grammar 
school  course,  263;  tests  of  the 
value  of  subjects,  264;  the  ele- 
mentary course,  255-262;  the 
"mental  arithmetic  revival,"  262; 


THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 


third  and  fourth  years  the  skill 
period,  256;  training  in  fourth 
year,  256;  training  in  third  year, 
255;  union  of  oral  and  written 
exercises,  260;  value  of  percent- 
age training,  266,  267;  what 
omissions  in  percentage  are  feasi- 
ble, 266. 

Arnold,  Sarah  Louise,  1S9,  206. 

Arrested  development,  245. 

Art,  ideals  in  learning,  48;  no  art 
learned  by  simple  practice,  49. 

Art  of  study  acquired  by  study, 
130. 

Art  of  testing,  99,  101 ;  of  class 
teaching,  133. 

Arts  involved  in  reading,  185. 

Assignment  of  lessons,  126, 127,  292; 
teacher's  fidelity  to,  127. 

Assumptions  of  individualism,  133; 
of  the  modern  school,  133. 

Attention,  34;  concentration  of, 
209;    no  recipe  for  securing,  34. 

Author's  questions,  lOO. 

Automatic  habit,  45,  185,  186. 

Automatic  practice,  49. 

Axioms  of  teaching,  36,  58. 

Bain,  Alexander,  9,  131. 

Best  literature  to  be  read,  209. 

Biography,  297,  298;  book  mastery 
in,  298;  book  study,  298;  earlier 
place  than  history,  297;  historic 
characters  in  historic  settings, 
297;  history  in,  298;  in  history, 
299;  in  physiology,  305;  not  a 
regular  study,  297;  relation  to 
history,  298. 

Blackboard  lessons,  195,  196;  order 
of,  196. 

Bookkeeping  business,  the,  178. 

Book  study,  instruction  and,  117- 
129;  aim  of,  119;  a  model  ex- 
ample —  lesson  on  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,  127;  art  of  study 
not  taught,  130;  assignment  of 
lessons,  126;  assignment  should 
be  definite,  suggestive,  and  inspir- 
ing, 126;  chief  value  of  writer's 
school  and  college  training,  119; 
children's  reading  circles,  117; 
decline  in  book  power,  130;   dia- 


gram of  instruction  and,  129; 
Dr.  Bain's  suggestion,  131;  first 
study  of  subjects  narrow,  131; 
German  oral  teaching,  119;  good 
memory  in  recitations,  127;  in- 
struction preparatory  to  study, 
123;  less  instruction  needed  in 
information  studies,  124;  me- 
moriter  study,  120;  memoriter 
work  in  oral  teaching,  121;  na- 
ture and  extent  of  preparatory 
instruction,  123;  neglect  of,  119; 
old-time  regime,  117;  over-in- 
struction to  be  avoidetl,  124; 
j)lace  for  memorizing  language, 
1 20;  power  to  read  books,  1 18; 
problem  in  American  education, 
119;  proper  use  of  text-books, 
121,  122,  298,  299;  reading,  the 
key  to  recorded  knowledge,  1 18; 
Sit  Oracle  on  text-books,  117; 
study  crowded  out  of  the  course, 
131 ;  study  intensive  reading,  I  ig; 
subversion  of,  123;  teacher's  fidel- 
ity to  assignment,  127;  teaching 
history  in  rural  schools,  128;  the 
pupil's  study  determined  by  the 
recitation,  130;  training  of  book 
power  an  important  end,  124; 
two  errors  in  use  of  text -books, 
128;  union  of  instruction  and 
study,  119;  use  of  the  text-book 
by  pupils,  117. 

Boone,  Richard  G.,  138. 

Bugbear  tests,  171. 

Busy  work,  164. 

Calling  on  pupils,  methods  of,  144; 

by  numbers,  143. 
Card  devices  for  calling  on  pupils, 

151.  152. 
Careful  vs.  careless  written  work,  169, 

214,  215. 
Careless  written  work,  169,  214. 
Catechetic  tests,  95. 
Change  of  activity,  167. 
Changes  in  mental  activity,  36. 
Child  limitations,  67. 
Child  psychology,  17. 
Children  not  little  adults,    17;    not 

philosophic  spiders,  106. 
Children's  reading  circles,  117. 


INDEX. 


Ill 


Child  study,  18-20;  an  expert  prob- 
lem, 19;  caution  as  to  use  of 
recorded  observations,  20;  few 
associations  possible,  18;  interpre- 
tation of  child  phenomena  difficult, 
18;  most  titles  "  chaff,"  19;  practi- 
cal value  of  syllabic  averages,  20; 
scientific  value  of  associations, 
18. 

Chorus  singing  as  a  test,  loi. 

Civics,  301-303;  below  the  high 
school,  301;  early  instruction  in, 
301 ;  facts  learned  from  time  to 
time,  302;  observational  phase, 
oral,  301 ;  study  of  the  national 
government,  302;  the  constitution, 
302;  value  of  such  instruction  over- 
estimated,  302. 

Class  book  of  geography,  no. 

Classes,  teaching  pupils  in,  143-159 
(see  Teach  ing  pupils ) . 

Classification  of  pupils,  l8l;  of 
words,   201. 

Class  instruction,  132-141 ;  abuses 
of  class  system,  139;  advantages 
of  class  instruction,  138;  an  ideal 
class  exercise,  136;  a  preparation 
for  life,  138;  art  of  class  teaching, 
133;  assumptions  of  the  modern 
school,  133;  assumptions  verified, 
134;  attention  of  entire  class 
secured,  136;  attention  to  indi- 
vidual differences,  137;  common 
powers  and  needs,  133;  correc- 
tion needed,  135;  correction  not 
abolition,  139;  double  action  in 
class  teaching,  137;  individual  in- 
struction, 133;  individual  instruc- 
tion in  class  work,  137;  individual 
power  of  appropriation,  134;  indi- 
vidual work,  139,  140;  inequality 
in  different  studies,  141 ;  inequality 
in  the  school  arts,  141 ;  numl^er  of 
pupils  in  a  class,  132;  objections 
to  class  instruction,  136;  physical 
development  a  parallel,  135;  re- 
sults of  common  disciplines  of 
school  and  college,  134;  self-ac- 
tivity in  appropriation,  135;  skill- 
ful presentation  of  subject-matter, 
136;  so-called  trials  of  individual 
instruction,  140;  the  graded  school 


problem,  142;  unequal  progress  of 
pupils,  141. 

Class  teaching,  art  of,  133,  156,  157, 
158. 

Cleveland  experience,  109. 

Clinton,  DeWitt,  86. 

Comenian  maxim  a  half-truth,  48. 

Committee  of  Ten,  213,  260. 

Committee  on  Composition,  Har- 
vard, 213. 

Communication  of  knowledge,  67. 

Comparative  method  of  geographi- 
cal study,  292. 

Complementary  terms,  lesson  and 
recitation,  57. 

Complete  arithmetic,  scientific,  26. 

Compound  numbers,  265. 

Concentration  and  correlation,  76- 
80;  allied  subjects  within  a  group, 
78;  "central  core,"  77;  charac- 
teristic feature  of  the  method,  77; 
coordinate  groups  of  studies,  77; 
coordinate  studies  more  and  more 
separate,  79;  coordination  of 
studies  excludes  subordination, 
77;  correlation  within  coordinate 
groups,  78;  "cross  references," 
79;  De  Garmo's  three  cores,  77; 
facts  in  different  coordinate  groups, 
78;  geography  and  history,  80; 
nature  lessons  and  literature,  79; 
Red  Riding  Hood,  79;  unifica- 
tion (concentration)  best  effected 
in  actual  instruction,  79;  unifica- 
tion most  helpful  in  primary  in- 
struction, 79;   Ziller's  central  core, 

77-  .       .         , 

Concentration  and  combinations,  fan- 
tastic, 108. 

Concert  exercises,  84,  86,  88,  100. 

Concert  method,  the,  154-156. 

Concert  testing,  100,  loi. 

Consciousness,  facts  of,  14. 

Consecutive  method,  the,  145-148. 

Correction  of  written  exercises,  227, 
228,  238. 

Correlation  of  oral  lessons,  1 14. 

Course  of  instruction,  true,  37 ;  abuse 
of  spiral  principle,  38;  primary 
knowledge  to  scientific  knowledge, 
37;  psychical  order,  38;  the  spiral 
theory,  38. 


IV 


THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 


Courses,  language,  223-241. 
Cramming,  gradgrind,  45. 
Crucial  test  of  devices,  25. 
Cycles  of  philosophy,  12. 

Daily  exercises  in  language,  separate, 
213. 

Decline  in  book  power,  130, 

Deduction,  64. 

Deductive  method,  74. 

Definitions  in  geography,  281 ;  of 
mathematical  terms,  282,  293. 

De  Garmo,  Charles,  77,  106. 

Denominate  numbers,  247. 

Descriptive  text,  285. 

Development  of  mental  power,  28; 
of  special  powers,  29. 

Diacritical  marks,  190,  202. 

Diagram  of  instruction  and  study,  129. 

Dictation  exercises,  224,  237,  238. 

Direct  or  telling  method,  67. 

Double  action  in  reading,  137. 

Drill,  the,  53,  81-89;  abuses  of  the 
drill,  87-89;  automatic  action,  81 ; 
clear  ideals  in  practice,  84;*  con- 
cert drills,  84,  86,  88;  concert 
repetition,  84;  ends,  81;  examples 
of  word  repetition,  82;  Lancaster 
system,  the,  85;  number  drills 
with  blocks  and  other  objects,  88; 
old-time  word  repetition,  82;  par- 
rot exercises,  84;  Repeiiiio  mater 
studiorum,  maxim  of  the  Jesuits, 
85;  repetition  and  practice  the 
drill  processes,  8r,  82;  repetition 
of  acts,  not  words,  82;  repetition 
of  knowing  acts  or  processes,  84; 
skill  acquired  by  guided  practice, 
84;  skill  in  the  school  arts,  81; 
skill  trained  by  guided  action,  81 ; 
word  repetition  to  be  avoided,  84. 

Drills  in  reading,  two  ends  of,  207. 

Eastern  continent,  286. 

Economics,  303,  304;  elements  in 
high  school,  science  in  the  uni- 
versity, 304;  incidental  instruction 
best,  303;  objections  to  formal 
study  below  the  high  school,  303. 

Education,  definitions,  7,  8,  9;  differ- 
ent senses,  9;  philosophy  of,  11 ; 
systems  of,  12. 


Elementary  course  in  arithmetic,  255- 
262. 

Elementary  manual  of  geography, 
use  of,  280. 

Ends,  desire  for  skill  inborn,  31; 
development  of  power,  28;  kinds 
of  knowledge  in  school  course, 
27;  knowledge  the  result  of  know- 
ing, 27;  phases  of  knowing,  28; 
power  to  acquire,  29;  power  to 
apply,  30;  power  to  express,  30; 
skill  as  an  end,  31 ;  special  direc- 
tions, 29;  teacher's  knowledge, 
thorough  and  fresh,  27;  three 
fundamental  ends  —  knowledge, 
power,  and  skill,  26;  training  skill, 
30;  utility  of  knowledge,  28; 
trinity  of,  26. 

Ends  in  teaching,  22;  a  measure  of 
success,  23;  a  test  of  devices  and 
methods,  23;  David's  sling,  26; 
discarded  devices  and  systems,  26; 
end,  the  crucial  test  of  devices,  25; 
experimenting  on  children,  24; 
first  question  in  pedagogy,  22; 
"Get  the  best,"  25;  immediate 
and  subjective,  11,  23;  the  end 
guides  the  process,  22;  three 
questions  before  trial  of  new  de- 
vice, 25;  trial  not  a  sure  test,  24; 
Saul's  armor,  26. 

Ends  of  teaching,  not  ultimate  and 
philosophic,  13,  23. 

English  grammar,  92. 

Enriching  course  of  study,  131. 

Estimate  plan  in  Cincinnati,  176. 

Ethics,  relation  to  teaching,  16. 

"  Examination  knowledge,"  94. 

Examinations,  written,  160,  169. 

Examinations  for  promotion  of  pu[)ils, 
172-181;  evil  results  of,  173;  in- 
fluence on  instruction  and  study, 
174. 

Excessive  drills,  87. 

Experience,  personal,  44. 

Experimenting  on  children,  24. 

Experiments,  Krapelin's,  109. 

Expression  of  knowledge,  29,  21 1. 

Expression,  oral  before  written,  167. 

Extemporaneous  written  work,  214. 

Eye  of  teaching,  the,  90. 

Eye  opener,  the  written  test  an,  178, 


INDEX. 


Facility  of  expression  end  of  lan- 
guage training,  219. 

Factor  processes,  253. 

Fads  and  hobbies,  12. 

Fichte,  Johann,  12. 

First  lessons  in  reading,  196-203 
(see  Reading). 

First  number  ideas,  242,  243. 

Pitch,  Sir  J.  G.,  7. 

Fitting  questions  to  pupils,  150. 

Five  formal  steps,  Herbart's,  112. 

P'ormal  discipline,  40. 

Formal  exercises  in  language,  213. 

Formal  steps  in  teaching,  112. 

Formal  test  exercises,  90. 

Fractional  parts,  250, 

Fraction,  idea  of,  250. 

Fraction  processes  in  fifth  school 
year,  256. 

Froebel,  17,  18. 

Galton,  Francis,  244. 

Garfield,  General  James  A.,  237. 

Gate  of  sense,  the,  67. 

General  concept,  62. 

Generalization,  62. 

General  review  by  comparative 
method,  291. 

Genesis  and  nature  of  number,  242. 

Geography,  271-296;  an  experiment 
with  satisfactory  results,  291; 
assignment  of  comparative  lessons, 
292;  causal  relation  of  facts,  279; 
definitions,  how  taught,  281;  def- 
initions of  mathematical  terms 
omitted,  282;  drawing  of  maps 
from  memory,  289 ;  early  lessons 
in  nature,  275 ;  elementary  book 
course;  281-294;  excursions  be- 
yond the  horizon,  279;  future 
needs  of  pupils  as  individuals 
unknown,  272;  free-hand  map 
drawing,  289;  general  review  by 
comparative  method,  291 ;  home 
geography,  275-280;  imagining 
unseen  objects  beyond  the  horizon, 
282;  individualism,  272;  instruc- 
tion in  home  geography,  276; 
lessons  on  outline  map  of  the 
world,  283;  lessons  on  the  globe, 
283;  map  drawing,  287;  map 
drawing  as  an  art,  288;  map  draw- 


ing easily  overdone,  291 ;  map 
questions  in  book,  287;  map  read- 
ing, 286;  mathematical  terms, 
293;  mental  map  image,  284; 
nature  bound  by  the  horizon  line, 
279;  nature  in  cities,  276;  na- 
ture stories  and  poems,  275;  no 
invariable  order  in  elementary 
geography,  271 ;  no  primary  geog- 
raphy can  be  written,  279;  out- 
line of  lessons  in  home  geography, 
277-278;  physical  features  and 
pohtical  divisions,  286;  physical 
geography,  294-296;  physical 
phenomena,  293;  review  drills, 
287;  review  of  oral  course,  281; 
scientific  study  of  physical  phe- 
nomena, 272;  special  topics,  292; 
specimen  comparative  lessons,  291 ; 
study  of  the  grand  divisions,  285- 
286;  teaching  appliances,  296; 
theories  as  to  subject-matter,  272; 
the  physical  and  the  human  sides, 
271;  the  pupil's  world  of  home, 
275;  three  courses  in  geography, 
273;  tides,  293;  true  end  of  map 
drawing,  289;  two  views  as  to 
order  of  instruction,  271;  use  of 
an  elementary  geography,  280 ; 
use  of  stencils  and  traced  outlines, 
290;  value  of  geography  as  a 
school  study,  273;  value  of  traced 
outlines,  290. 

Geography  and  history,  80. 

Geography,  phases  of,  35,  37, 

"  Get  the  best,"  25. 

Globe,  lessons  on,  283. 

Graded  school  problem,  the,  142. 

Graded  system,  the,  142. 

Gradgrind  process  of  cramming,  45. 

Grammar  delusion,  218. 

Grammar,  function  and  place  of  tech- 
nical, 216,  217. 

Grand  divisions,  study  of,  285-28S. 

Greenwood,  J.  M.,  247,  248. 

Groups  of  objects  numbered  without 
counting,  249. 

Grube  method,  the,  251,  252. 

Guiding  principles  of  teaching,  13. 

Habits,  reading,  193,  206. 
Hall,  G.  Stanley,  18,  19,  162. 


VI 


THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 


Hamilton,  Sir  William,  72. 
Hand-raising  in  class  exercises,  150. 
Harris,  W.  T.,  8,  13,  77,  138,  248, 

298. 
Hill,  Thomas,  249. 
Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  8,  212,  217,  220. 
Historic  conceptions,  300. 
History  and  biography,  298. 
History  and  geography,  80. 
History,  United  States,  299,  301  (see 

Untied  States  history^. 
Hobbes's  Leviathan,  300. 
Hobbies  and  fads,  12. 
Hoffding,  Harold,  15,  45. 
Home  geography,  275-280. 
Home  study  and  work,  163, 164, 166. 
Horizon  geography,  279. 
Hudson  River  valley,  164. 
Human    phenomena   in   geography, 

27I-273- 
Husking  thought,  70. 

Ideal  class  exercise,  an,  136. 

Ideals  in  learning  the  arts,  48;  form- 
ing correct  ideals  essential  step, 
48;   skill  in  realizing,  49. 

Ideals  in  art,  84;   in  practice,  84. 

Imagination  in  play,  47. 

Imaging  numbers,  244. 

Imitation,  art  phase  of,  47;  in  in- 
fancy, 47;  instinctive  and  volun- 
tary, 46. 

Immediate  ends,  li. 

Incidental  instruction,  96,  212. 

Incidental  testing,  90. 

Individual  differences,  attention   to, 

137- 
Individual  instruction,  133,  137,  140. 
Individualism,  133,  272. 
Induction,  63. 
Infants  and  adults,  58. 
Influence  of  tests,  94. 
Information  and  knowledge,  27,  33, 

68. 
Information  readers,  209. 
Insight,  philosophic,  12. 
Inspection,  measurement  by,  245. 
Inspiration  exercises,  158. 
Institute  management,  extremes  in, 

157- 
Interest,  34. 
Introduction,  7. 


Instruction,  52;   true  course  of,  37. 

Instruction  and  book  study,  117- 
131  (see  Book  study). 

Instruction  independent  of  text- 
book, 104. 

Instruction,  methods  of,  58-80  (see 
Methods) ;  analytic  and  synthetic 
methods,  72;  concentration  and 
correlation,  76;  direct  or  telling 
method,  67;  illustrative  method, 
69;  indirect  or  Socratic  method, 
62;  inductive  and  deductive 
methods,  74;  objective  method, 
59;   special  methods,  80. 

Instruction,  oral,  102-115  (see 
Oral  instruction). 

Instruction  preparatory  to  study, 
123,  124;    to  reading,  208. 

Introduction  to  algebra,  268-270. 

Inverse  processes,  253. 

James,  Professor  William,  14,  15. 
Jesuit  maxim,  85. 
Judd,  Charles  H.,  79. 
Judging  and  judgment,  63. 

Keeping  pupils  busy,  164. 

Key,  reading  the,  118. 

Knowledge  and  information,  27,  T,2>^ 
68;  kinds  of,  27,  59;  measure  of 
utility,  28;  not  transferable,  33; 
phases  of,  28,  37;  philosophic, 
II;  psychical,  15;  or  power, 
leading  aim,  43;  the  result  of 
knowing,  t,!,;   utility,  28. 

Knowledge  of  processes  in  learning 
an  art,  49. 

Knowledge  tested  by  its  expression. 

Knowledge,  principal  one,  34;  axiom 
of  teaching,  36;  changes  in  activi- 
ties of  mental  powers,  36;  how 
taught,  35;  natural  order,  sense 
to  reason,  37,  38;  phases  of 
knowledge,  37,  273;  primary 
ideas  and  facts,  35;  scientific 
knowledge,  35,  37;  sequence  of 
knowledge,  38;  spiral  theory,  38; 
true  course  of  instruction,  37. 

Laboratory  method,  61. 
Laboratory  research,  15. 


INDEX. 


VU 


Ladd,  George  T.,  15. 

Lancaster  system,  the,  85,  144. 

Language  as  a  school  art,  210. 

Language  lessons,  218;  manuals,2 1 9. 

Language  training,  210-222;  advan- 
tages of  dictation  exercises,  237; 
all  primary  lessons  should  end  in 
expression,  211;  appeals  to  expe- 
rience, 217;  attainments  in  two 
years,  212;  basis  of  stories,  231; 
careless  written  work,  214;  care- 
ful writing  required,  215;  Com- 
mittee of  Ten,  213;  common 
observation,  227;  correction  of 
papers,  228;  cut-feed  lessons, 
219;  descriptions  from  questions, 
228;  dictation  exercises,  224; 
division  of  school  year  into  four 
periods,  224;  division  of  time, 
240 ;  equal  division  of  school  pe- 
riod, 215;  examples  for  dictation, 
238;  extemporaneous  writing, 
214;  facility  first  end,  220;  live 
fundamental  disciplines,  224;  five 
series  of  exercises,  223;  formal 
exercises  in  language,  213;  four 
synthetic  series,  225;  fundamen- 
tal principles,  210;  grammar  de- 
lusion, 218;  Harvard  Committee 
on  Composition,  213;  Herbert 
Spencer,  217;  incidental  training 
not  sufficient,  212;  language  ac- 
quired by  synthetic  activity,  221; 
language  exercises  should  be  pro- 
gressive, 223;  language  lessons 
should  face  facility,  219;  lan- 
guage the  most  practical  of  the 
school  arts,  210;  language  train- 
ing in  rural  schools,  239;  lan- 
guage value  of  grammar,  217;  let- 
ters, 236;  Lindley  Murray,  216, 
217;  materials,  courses,  and  meth- 
ods, 223-241 ;  nature  lessons,  227 ; 
nature  of  language  training,  218; 
notebooks,  214;  observation  les- 
sons, 225 ;  outline  and  character 
of  synthetic  exercises,  225-241 ; 
outline  of  language  exercises,  241 ; 
pictures  as  objects  of  sight,  229; 
picture  exercises,  229;  place  of 
technical  grammar,  216;  Profes- 
sor Marsh,  220;   Professor  Suliot's 


outline,  235 ;  regular  place  in 
program,  215;  reproduction  of 
stories,  234;  rural  schools,  239- 
241;  selection  of  stories,  234; 
separate  daily  exercises  in  lan- 
guage, 213;  series  of  letter  exer- 
cises, 236;  sight  and  imagination, 
231;  six  years  for  language,  215; 
skill  in  using  written  forms,  220; 
social  and  business  correspond- 
ence, 237;  speech  and  writing 
synthetic,  221;  stories  from  out- 
lines, 235;  stories  in  first  and 
second  years,  233;  stories  to  be 
memorized,  233;  telling  stories 
by  pupils,  212;  "The  Forgiven 
Debt,"  236;  the  new  word yrt(rz7?'/y, 
219;  the  tongue  before  the  pen, 
212;  the  written  exercise,  227; 
three-section  plan  in  rural  schools, 
239;  training  first  two  years,  2IO; 
variety  of  practice,  223;  W.  D. 
Whitney,  217;  written  exercises, 
230. 
Leading  aim,  knowledge  or  power? 

43- 
Leigh  type,  188. 

Lesson,  the,  55;   oral,  a  unit,  107. 
Lesson  plans,  general,  109;   special, 

no. 
Lesson  unified  knowledge,  a,  108. 
Lessons,  assignment  of,  126. 
Lessons  in  home  geography,  outlines 

of,  277. 
Letter  writing,  236,  237. 
Literature  and  nature  lessons,  79. 
Literature  in  reading,  206. 
Lowell,  James  Russell,  118. 

McClellan,  James  A.,  244. 

McMurry,  Charles  A.,  108. 

Mann,  Horace,  152. 

Map  drawing,  287-291. 

Map  images,  284. 

Map  questions  in  text-book,  2S7. 

Map  reading,  286. 

March,  Francis  A.,  220. 

Material,  language,  223-241. 

Maximof  elementary  instruction, 44; 

of  the  Jesuits,  85. 
Measurement,     quantitative,     243  ; 

qualitative,  243. 


Vlll 


THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 


Measurement  of  concrete  magni- 
tudes, 245. 

Memoriter  methods,  43,  120. 

Memoriter  teaching,  91,  120,  121. 

Memory  in  recitations,  127. 

Memory,  verbal,  91. 

Mendenhall,  T.  C,  119,  264. 

Mental  arithmetic,  262. 

Mental  energy  and  activity,  39. 

Mental  habits,  41. 

Mental  power,  39,  43. 

Mental  problems,  written  solution 
of,  168. 

Method  grinder,  pedantry  of  the,  62. 

Methods  of  instruction,  58-80 ; 
abuses  of  the  objective  method, 
62;  analysis  and  synthesis  corre- 
lates, 72;  analytic  and  synthetic 
methods,  72;  analytic  method  not 
general,  73;  axiom  of  teaching, 
58;  biography  and  history  syn- 
thetic, 73;  child  limitations,  67; 
communication  of  knowledge,  67; 
concentration  and  correlation,  76- 
80  (see  Concentration,  special 
methods)  ;  condition  of  communi- 
cation, 67;  conditions  to  be  ob- 
served in  teaching  knowledge  by 
language,  68;  deduction,  64;  di- 
rect method  and  the  proper  acts 
of  knowing,  70;  direct  or  telling 
method,  67;  facts  of  judgment, 
particular  and  general,  63;  gener- 
alization, general  concept,  62; 
how  new  ideas  can  be  taught,  60; 
husking  thought,  70 ;  illustrative 
instruction  not  objective,  69;  in- 
direct method  also  called  the  train- 
ing method,  64;  indirect  or  So- 
cratic  method,  62;  induction,  63; 
induction  and  deduction  defined, 
75;  inductive  and  deductive 
methods,  74;  inductive  instruction 
syntiietic,  deductive  analytic,  75; 
infant  in  perceptive  phase,  adult 
in  scientific,  58;  initial  process 
gives  name,  73;  judging,  judg- 
ment, 63;  knowledge  and  infor- 
mation, 68;  limitation  in  higher 
instruction,  66;  method  defined, 
59;  method  of  Socrates,  65;  misuse 
of  inductive   method,    76;    mind's 


impulse  to  pass  from  sense  to 
reason,  64;  natural  order  involved, 
66;  objective  method,  61 ;  parable 
defined,  69;  primary  ideas  and 
facts  taught  objectively,  61;  prim- 
ary ideas,  how  formed,  66;  primary 
ideas  not  taught  by  words,  60; 
seven  primary  maxims,  65;  swing- 
ing on  the  gate  of  sense,  67; 
teacher's  preparation,  analytic,  74; 
the  general  and  the  universal 
reached  by  thinking,  three  distinct 
methods  of  teaching  knowledge, 
59;  three  kinds  of  knowledge,  59; 
training  maxim,  64;  transitional 
phase,  58;  two  processes  usually 
united,  74;  union  of  methods,  70; 
universal  truths  reached  by  reason- 
ing, 63;  use  of  inductive  and  de- 
ductive methods  limited,  75;  use 
of  method,  70;  what  determines 
method,  59. 

Methods  of  teaching,  35,  58-80. 

Methods  of  testing,  95-101  (see 
Testing) . 

Mill,  John  Stuart,  7,  8. 

Mind's  impulse,  the,  64. 

Model  example,  a,  127,  128. 

Modeling  and  molding,  50. 

Modern  psychologists,  15. 

Modern  psychology,  15. 

Modified  vowels,  200. 

Monitorial  and  mutual  instruction,  86. 

Motive,  reading,  206. 

Motor  impulse,  47. 

Moulton,  Richard  G.,  118. 

Miiller,  Max,  222. 

Miinsterberg,  Hugo,  15,  16. 

Murray,  Lindley,  216,  217. 

Muscles,  the  ancillary,  162. 

Narrow  utilitarianism,  44. 

Natural  order,  from  sense  to  reason, 

37- 

Nature,  early  lessons  in,  275. 

Nature  lessons  and  literature,  79. 

Nature  lessons  (language),  227. 

Nature  stories  and  poems,  275. 

Necessary  conditions  of  oral  instruc- 
tion, 104. 

Nervousness  of  pupils  increasing, 
163. 


INDEX. 


IX 


New  psychology,  the,  13,  14. 

Nibbling  plan,  the,  259. 

Non-instruction  exercises,  102. 

North  America,  285. 

Notebooks,  214. 

Number,  first  lessons  in,  245-254; 
abstract  numbers,  246;  denomi- 
nate numbers,  247;  drills  on  ab- 
stract numbers,  248;  ends  to  be 
attained,  252;  first  ideas  qualita- 
tive, 243;  first  number  ideas,  242; 
four  number  processes,  253;  frac- 
tional parts,  250;  genesis  and 
nature  of  number,  242;  Grube 
method,  25 1;  habit  of  imaging 
numbers,  244;  idea  of  a  fraction 
developed,  250;  idea  of  ratio  "  the 
result  of  development,"  244;  in- 
verse processes,  253;  little  num- 
ber training  first  two  years,  251; 
measurement  by  inspection,  245; 
measurement  of  concrete  magni- 
tudes, 244;  numbering  groups  of 
objects,  249;  numbers  as  wholes, 
250;  objections  to  method  veri- 
fied, 252;  objective  exercises  lim- 
ited, 247;  objects  not  numbers, 
247;  primary  course  in  numbers, 
249-254;  ratio  of  concrete  magni- 
tudes, 246;  sensing  numbers,  245 ; 
special  value  of  perceptive  power, 
250;  three  initial  steps  in  teach- 
ing number,  246;  two  factor  pro- 
cesses, 253;  visualizing  numbers, 
244;  Waltham  experiment,  249; 
weights  and  measures,  248. 

Number  ideas  caught,  259. 

Number  of  pupils  in  a  class,  132, 

Number  processes,  the  four,  253; 
natural  order,  247. 

Objections  to  class  instruction  an- 
swered, 136. 

Objective  method,  59;  definition  of, 
61. 

Objective  number  training,  247. 

Objects  not  numbers,  247. 

Observation  lessons  (language),  225- 
228. 

Observational  phase  of  civics,  301. 

Old  pedagogical  error,  revival  of,  17. 

Old-time  regime,  the,  117. 


Old-time  school,  the,  139;  writing 
in,  161. 

Oral  and  written  processes,  260. 

Oral  geography,  review  of,  281. 

Oral  instruction,  102-115;  adapta- 
tion of  methods  to  capability  of 
pupils,  109;  adaptation  of  subject- 
matter  to  capability,  106;  a  diffi- 
cult art,  102;  a  lesson  unified 
knowledge,  loS;  bad  advice,  ill; 
children  not  philosophic  spiders, 
106;  correct  written  work,  116; 
correlation  of  lessons,  114;  Dies- 
terweg  quoted,  1 13;  excursions 
into  other  studies  by  teacher, 
112;  fantastic  concentration  com- 
binations, 108;  few  diversions, 
these  under  control,  in;  fidelity 
to  preparation,  no;  general  les- 
son plans  not  wise,  109;  Herbart's 
five  formal  steps,  112;  increasing 
demand  for,  102;  instruction  ex- 
ercises, aim  and  method,  103; 
instruction  independent  of  text- 
book, 104;  Krapelin's  experi- 
ments, 109;  lesson  plans  early 
hobbies,  109;  methods  of  teach- 
ing to  be  determined,  108;  myths, 
103;  non-instruction  exercises, 
102;  objection  to  formal  steps  in 
teaching,  112;  opinion  of  foreign 
educators,  113;  oral  instruction 
in  lowest  grades,  104;  oral  lesson 
a  unit,  107,  108;  order  of  presen- 
tation, 107;  power  to  know 
trained  through  knowing,  103; 
proper  sequence  of  lessons  in 
series,  114;  psychical. sequence  of 
facts,  not  the  logical  order,  107; 
relation  to  art  exercises,  104;  re- 
production by  application,  116; 
reproduction  of  the  lesson,  112- 
116;  requisites  for  success  in 
oral  teaching,  104;  reviews,  115; 
sensation  exercises,  103;  skillful 
oral  teaching  requires  prepara- 
tion, no;  special  topics  prefer- 
able, 1 10;  subject-matter  of  lesson 
to  be  determined,  106;  teacher's 
function,  in;  teacher's  prepara- 
tion, 105;  teaching  the  lesson, 
110-112;     thorough     and     fresh 


X 


THE  ART   OF   TEACHING. 


knowledge,  105;  weakness  of 
American  oral  teaching,  113; 
written  outlines  of  lessons,  106; 
written  reproductions  and  re- 
views, 115;  Ziller's  central  core, 
77,  108. 

Oral  problems,  numerous,  261. 

Oral  search,  the,  57. 

Oral  test,  the,  100. 

Order,  natural,  37,  66. 

Order  of  number  processes,  247. 

Outline  maps,  lessons  on,  283. 

Outlines  of  language  exercises,  226, 
241. 

Outlines  of  lessons  in  home  geogra- 
phy, 277. 

Overtasking  pupils,  166. 

Parrot  repetition,  84. 

Pauslen,  Frederick,  120. 

Payne,  W.  H.,  8. 

Pen  and  pencil,  use  of,  160;  exces- 
sive, 162. 

Percentage,  omissions  in,  265-267. 

Personal  influence,  158. 

Pestalozzi,  17,  65. 

Phases  of  knowing  and  knowledge, 
28,  273. 

Philosophic  insight,  12. 

Philosophic  knowledge,  absence  of, 
II. 

Philosophic  spiders,  106. 

Philosophy,  cycles  of,  1 2 ;  function  of, 
10;  no  light  on  teaching  as  an  art, 
II;  pedagogic  value  of,  10;  rela- 
tion to  art,  1 1 ;  relation  to  science, 
1 1 ;  relation  to  systems  of  educa- 
tion, 12;  schools  of,  12;  science  of 
the  sciences,  12;  the  true  philos- 
ophy, 12;  ultimate  unity,  li; 
value  of,  1 2. 

Phonetic  System,  Pitman's,  189. 

Phonic  difficulties,  199. 

Phonic  drills,  198. 

Phonic  Method,  the,  188. 

Phonic  System,  Robinson's,  189. 

Physical  geography,  294-296. 

Physical  phenomena  in  geography, 
271,  272,  293. 

Physiological  research,  16. 

Physiology,  16,  161,  304-306;  anat- 
omy   not    a    child's    study,    304- 


305;  assumptions  as  to  practical 
value,  304;  hygienic  instruction, 
305;  objectionable  charts  and 
models,  305  ;  relation  to  teaching, 
16;  testimony  of,  161 ;  systematic 
study  of  physiology,  305 ;  value  of 
facts,  16. 

Picture  exercises,  229-231. 

Political  economy,  303,  304  (see 
Economics). 

Porter,  Noah,  15. 

Pothooks,  161. 

Power  tested  by  its  exercise,  92.     • 

Power  to  read  books,  118. 

Preparation  for  oral  teaching,  teach- 
er's, 105. 

Presuppositions  in  methods  of  teach- 
ing, 21. 

Primary  geography,  no  true,  279. 

Primary  ideas,  60,  61. 

Primary  instruction,  17;  application 
in  methods,  17;  value  of  psy- 
chology in,  17. 

Primary  maxims,  65. 

Primary  Reading,  183-194  (see 
Reading) . 

Principle  One  (see  Knowledge),  34- 

38- 

Principle  Two,  39-45;  all  studies 
have  not  equal  value,  42;  avail- 
able in  all  related  activities,  41 ; 
comparative  value  of  school  stud- 
ies, 42;  formal  discipline,  40; 
gradgrind  process  of  cramming, 
45;  knowledge  or  power  leading 
aim,  43;  maxim  of  elementary  in- 
struction, 44;  memoriter  methods, 
43;  mental  habits,  41;  mental 
power  abiding,  43;  mental  power 
developed  by  activity,  39;  narrow 
utilitarianism,  44;  personal  ex- 
perience, 44;  power  and  tendency, 
39;  teaching  the  occasioning  of 
right  activity,  39;  training  power 
leading  aim  in  teaching  knowl- 
edge, 43;  truth  in  neither  ex- 
treme, 41 ;  soul  power  the  abiding 
practical  result,  44;  superficial 
empiricist,  43;    universal,  40. 

Principle  Three,  45-51  (see  Skill). 

Principles  of  Teaching,  16,  32-51 ; 
basal,  16;  conditions,  34;  degrees 


INDEX. 


XI 


of  certitude,  33;  guiding  princi- 
ples few  and  simple,  32;  knowing 
as  an  act,  33;  knowledge  and 
information,  T^y,  knowledge  not 
transferable,  33;  knowledge  the 
result  of  knowing,  2)y',  word  cram- 
ming, 34,  45. 

Print  or  script,  195. 

Problem  in  American  education, 
119. 

Problem  of  the  rural  school,  140. 

Processes,  teaching,  52-57;  blend- 
ing teaching,  54;  definite  terms 
needed  in  pedagogy,  56;  instruc- 
tion, 52;  proper  use  of  terms, 
lesson  and  recitation,  56;  repeti- 
tion and  practice,  53;  teaching 
exercises,  57;  the  drill  —  its  ends, 
53;  the  eye  of  teaching,  53;  the 
lesson  and  the  recitation  comple- 
mentary exercises,  57;  the  lesson, 
including  instruction  and  drills,. 
55;  the  recitation,  55;  the  term 
recitation  used  too  indefinitely, 
56;  the  test,  its  ends,  53;  the 
vitalizing  oral  search,  57;  three 
teaching  exercises,  —  instruction, 
drill,  and  test,  54,  55;  three  teach- 
ing processes — instruction,  drill- 
ing, and  testing,  52. 

Program,  language,  in  school,  215. 

Progress  of  pupils,  unequal,  14 1. 

Promiscuous  method,  the,  148-153. 

Promotion  examinations,  172-181; 
classification  of  pupils  difficult, 
181 ;  estimate  plan  in  Cincinnati, 
176;  evil  results  of,  173;  influ- 
ence on  mstruction  and  study,  1 74 ; 
intelligent  supervision  needed, 
177;  limiting  conditions,  173; 
meaning  of  proposed  reforms,  181, 
182;  plans  for  correcting  evils, 
175;  preparing  wares  for  the  mar- 
ket, 174;  promotion  on  teacher's 
judgment  requires  supervisory  effi- 
ciency, 176;  promotion  tests  poor 
teaching  tests,  179;  reliability  of 
teachers,  176;  results  enter  into 
teacher's  judgment,  178;  super- 
visory tests,  178-180;  teacher's 
estimates,  175;  teaching  tests, 
177;     testimony    as   to   results  of 


change,  175;  the  system  for  the 
pupil,  181;  written  examinations, 
uses  of  results,  172. 

Promotion  of  pupils,  172-177. 

Psychical  activity,  13. 

Psychical  and  physical  phenomena, 
16. 

Psychical  changes  in  childhood,  18. 

Psychical  knowledge,  value  of,  15. 

Psychology,  basis  of  teaching  art,  13; 
child  psychology,  17;  has  light  for 
the  teacher,  21;  in  primary  in- 
struction, 17;  modern,  15;  no  new 
psychology,  13,  14;  not  exclusively 
introspective,  14;  of  the  "arm- 
chair," 15;  physiological,  14; 
psychical  changes,  18,36;  science 
of,  13;  sources  of  psychical  knowl- 
edge, 20;   value  of,  14,  15,  17. 

Pupils  in  classes,  teaching,  143-159 
(see  Teaching). 

Questions,  character  of,  96;   distribu- 
tion of,  144;    not  ambiguous,  96;    >. 
not  leading,  97;    sequence  of,  144; 
teaching  and  testing,  143. 

Quick,  Robert  Herbert,  94. 

Rational  algebra,  270. 

Ratio,  idea  of,  244. 

Reading  circles,  children's,  1 1 7. 

Reading,  double,  action  in,  137. 

Reading,  first  lessons  in,  195-203; 
association  of  sounds  and  letters, 
199;  blackboard  lessons,  195, 196; 
classification  of  words,  201 ;  coarse 
hand  at  first,  202;  diacritical 
marks,  202;  first  phonic  drills, 
198;  free  reading  by  children, 
204;  good  literature  should  be 
read,  206;  good  reading  habits, 
206;  limit  in  use  of  word  method, 
197;  modified  vowels,  200;  mo- 
tive for  reading,  206;  phonic  diffi- 
culties in  English  words,  199; 
obscure  vowels,  200;  reading  in 
second  and  third  readers,  203; 
script  or  print,  195;  sentence 
reading,  197;  sight  reading,  205; 
study  of  lessons,  205  ;  summary  of 
steps,  202;  syllabic  analysis,  201; 
syllabic  drills,  200;  test  reading  les- 


xu 


THE   ART   OF   TEACHING. 


sons,  204;  the  purpose  of  reading, 
207;  the  stress  on  thought  read- 
ing, 204;  too  much  reading  to  be 
avoided,  207;  true  order  in  board 
lessons,  196;  type  combination  of 
letters,  201 ;  union  of  special 
methods,  195;  word  mastery  first 
step,  197;  word  method  at  first, 
197;  words  as  sounds  first,  198; 
writing  in  first  lessons,  196;  writ- 
ing new  words,  202. 

Reading  in  higher  grades,  207,  209; 
best  literature  to  be  read,  209; 
concentration  of  attention  on  sub- 
ject-matter, 209;  information 
readers,  209;  not  an  omnium 
gatherum,  208;  preparatory  in- 
struction, 208;  two-fold  purpose 
in  reading  drill,  207. 

Reading,  primary,  183-194;  a-b-c 
method,  the,  186;  acts  included 
in  reading,  185;  automatic  habits, 
185,  186;  diacritical  marks,  190, 
202;  early  use  of  word  method  in 
Cleveland,  190;  Leigh  type,  188; 
limited  use  of  method,  193;  no 
one  of  special  methods  complete, 
193;  phonic  method,  the,  188; 
Pitman's  Phonetic  System,  189; 
principles,  183-185;  Robinson's 
Phonic  System,  189;  sentence 
method,  the,  191;  sentences  not 
read,  191 ;  special  methods,  186- 
194;  syllabic  method,  the,  187, 
201;  syllabic  phones,  187;  syn- 
thetic method,  the,  189;  the  unit 
of  language,  192;  thought  method, 
the,  192;  two  views,  183;  word 
method,  the,  190,  197. 

Realization  of  ideals,  47. 

Recitation,  the,  55,  127. 

Recitation  and  study,  the,  130. 

Reclassification  of  pupils,  141. 

Reduction  of  subjects  in  arithmetic, 
263,  264. 

Reforms  in  promotion  and  classifica- 
tion, 181. 

Repetitio  maler  sludiorian,  85. 

Repetition    and     practice,    45,    53, 

^4-  .  . 
Repetition  of  series  of  acts,  46. 
Repetition,  word,  82,  84. 


Reproduction  of  lessons   by  pupils, 

112-115. 
Reproduction  of  stories,  234. 
Review  drills  in  geography,  287. 
Reviews,  115;   written  reviews,  115. 
Royce,  Josiah,  11,  14. 
Rules  in  art  training,  50. 
Rules  of  technical  grammar,  50. 
Rules  through  processes,  260. 
Rural  school,  individual  work  in,  140. 
Rural  school  problem,  the,  141. 
Rural  schools,  language  training  in, 

239,  240. 

School  arts,  skill  in,  81. 

School  education,  9. 

School  studies,  comparative  value 
of,  42. 

School  training,  16. 

Science  of  arithmetic,  263. 

Science  of  education.  Bain's,  9. 

Science  of  ethics,  16. 

Science  of  psychology,  13. 

Scientific  instruction,  35,  37,  262. 

Scientific  knowledge,  35,  37,  58, 
262,  295. 

Scientific  value  of  child  study,  19; 
of  syllabi  averages,  20. 

Script  or  print,  195. 

Self-activity,  10;   in  play,  47. 

Sensations  and  myths,  103. 

Sense  to  reason,  37. 

Sensing  numbers,  244. 

Sentence  method,  the,  191, 

Sentence  reading,  197. 

Separate  treatment  of  teaching,  10. 

Sequence  of  facts,  107. 

Series  of  language  exercises,  five, 
223,  224. 

Sight  reading,  205. 

Simultaneous  method,  the,  154-156. 

Sir  Oracle  on  text-books,  117. 

Skill  as  an  end,  30,  31. 

Skill,  principle  three,  43-51;  art 
phase  of  imitation,  47;  automatic 
action  in  series,  46;  automatic 
habit,  45 ;  automatic  practice  sub- 
versive of  skill,  49;  essential  step 
in  teaching  art,  148;  forming  of 
correct  ideals,  48;  ideals  in  learn- 
ing the  arts,  48;  imagination  in 
imitation,    47;     imitation    in    in- 


INDEX. 


Xlll 


fancy,  47;  imitation,  instinctive 
and  voluntary,  ^6;  knowledge  of 
processes,  49;  itiemory  imitation, 
46;  motor  impulse,  47;  modeling 
and  molding,  5(1;  no  art  learned 
by  practice,  49;  psychical  facts, 
45;  realizations  of  ideals,  47; 
repetition  and  piactice,  45;  repe- 
tition of  series  if  acts,  46;  rules 
in  art  training,  5b;  rules  in  learn- 
ing the  art  of  language,  50;  self- 
activity  in  play,  47;  skill  in  real- 
izing ideals,  49;  the  Comenian 
maxim  a  half-truth,  48. 

Skill  tested  by  doing  or  action,  93. 

Skimming  books,  118. 

Socrates,  65. 

Socratic  method,  62,  65. 

Soul  power  the  abiding  result,  44. 

South  America,  285. 

Spasmodic  pressure,  171. 

Special  methods,  80;  of  reading, 
186-194. 

Special  topics  in  geography,  292. 

Specimens  of  tests,  93,  1 19. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  217. 

Spiral  theory  of  teaching,  38. 

Stencil  maps  and  traced  outlines, 
290. 

Steps  in  teaching  language,  221,  222. 

Steps  in  teaching  numbers,  246. 

Stories,  212;   from  outlines,  235. 

Story  exercises,  233-235. 

Study  intensive  reading,  119. 

Study  of  things,  62. 

Subjective  ends,  13. 

Subject-matter,  presentation  of,  136. 

Suliot,  T.  E.,  235. 

Superficial  empiricist,  43. 

Superficial  study,  126. 

Supervisory  tests,  178,  179. 

Syllabic  analysis,  201. 

Syllabic  drills,  200. 

Syllabic  method,  the,  187. 

Syllabic  power,  187. 

Synthetic  method,  the,  72,  73,  189. 

Systematic  study,  98. 

Teacher,  occasioner  of  activity,   10, 

39- 
Teacher's    judgment    in    promoting 
pupils,  176. 


Teacher's  preparation  for  oral  teach- 
ing, 105;  fidelity  to  preparation, 
no. 

Teaching,  adaptation  to  psychical 
changes,  18,  36;  aimless  teaching, 
22;  as  an  art,  10;  axiom  of  teach- 
ing, 36;  definition  of,  9;  separate 
treatment,  10;   the  art  of  arts,  22. 

Teaching  appliances  in  physical 
geography,  296. 

Teaching  ends  immediate,  11. 

Teaching  exercises,  lessons  and  reci- 
tations, 57. 

Teaching   processes,    52-57;    union 

of,  54,  55- 

Teaching  pupils  in  classes,  143-159; 
abuse  of  concert  method,  155; 
bad  influence  of  poor  class  teach- 
ing, 157;  calling  pupils  by  num- 
bers, 153;  character  of  questions, 
143;  children's  voices  in  reading 
and  singing,  156;  class  exercise 
made  a  fine  mental  drill,  149 ; 
class  teaching  as  an  art,  156;  con- 
secutive method,  145-148;  distri- 
bution of  questions  and  topics, 
144;  extremes  in  institute  man- 
agement, 157;  fitting  questions  to 
pupils,  150;  geometrical  diagram, 
152;  inspiration  exercises,  158; 
instruction  fired  at  a  class,  158; 
Lancaster  system,  85,  154;  limited 
use  of  concert  method,  154; 
methods    of    calling    on     pupils, 

— f44X"  fformat'ihstitutes,  157;  out- 
lines of  an  institute  performance, 
157;  personal  influence  and 
power,  158;  poor  class  teaching 
in  school  and  college,  158;  "pri- 
mary tone,"  155;  promiscuous 
method,  148-153;  proper  distri- 
bution of  questions  and  topics, 
150;  questions,  teaching,  and 
TesfTrig,'  143;  semi-musical  tones, 
155;  sequence  of  questions,  144; 
simultaneous  method,  154-156; 
skillful  union  of  methods,  153; 
undivided  attention  of  entire  class, 
144;  unequal  participation  in  class 
work,  151 ;  voice  in  concert  drills, 
155;  weakness  of  concert  method, 
154- 


XIV 


THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 


Teaching  tests,  177. 

Technical  algebra,  269. 

Telling  methud,  the,  67. 

Tendency,  unwise,  17. 

Terms  in  pedagogy,  proper  use  of, 

55- 
Test,  the,  53,  90-101 ;  English  gram- 
mar not  a  form  study,  92;  "ex- 
amination knowledge,"  94;  eye 
of  teaching,  90;  formal  test  exer- 
cises, their  importance,  90;  im- 
portance of  testing  power  and 
skill,  94;  incidental  testing,  not 
sufficient,  90;  influence  of  tests 
on  instruction,  94;  influence  of 
tests  on  pupil's  study,  95;  its  pur- 
pose or  function,  90;  knowledge 
tested  by  its  application  or  use, 
91 ;  knowledge  tested  by  its  ex- 
pression, 91 ;  memoriter  expres- 
sion uncertain,  91 ;  power  tested 
by  its  exercise,  92;  power  to 
analyze  sentences  tested  by  their 
analysis,  92;  skill  tested  by  doing 
or  action,  93;  specimens  poor 
test  of  manual  skill,  93;  time  ele- 
ment in  skill,  93;  verbal  memory, 
91 ;    word    drawing    not    writing, 

93; 

Testing,  modes  of,  95-101 ;  advan- 
tages of  question  method,  95; 
ambiguous  questions,  96;  asking 
questions  from  a  book,  99;  cate- 
chetic  and  topic  methods  com- 
pared, 98;  catechetic  and  topic 
tests,  95;  character  of  questions, 
96;  chorus  singing  as  a  test,  loi; 
directions  as  tests  of  power  and 
skill,  99 ;  leading  questions  worth- 
less as  tests,  97;  proper  use  of  an 
author's  questions,  100;  questions 
poor  tests  of  expression,  97;  skill- 
ful use  of  topic  method,  loo; 
systematic  unfolding  of  subject, 
96;  testing  a  difficult  art,  99; 
testing  as  an  art,  loi ;  test  ques- 
tions, 95;  the  concert  test  mis- 
leading, 100,  loi;  the  oral  test, 
loo;  thoroughness,  95;  topic 
method  a  good  test  of  expression, 
98. 

Test  reading  lessons,  204. 


Text-book,  lessons  in,  284. 
Text-books,   errors  in   use  of,  128; 

proper  use  of,  121,  122. 
Text-books,  study  of,   117-129  (see 

Book  Study). 
Thought  method,  the,  192. 
Thought  reading,  204. 
Time  in  skill,  93. 
Tongue  before  the  pen,  the,  212. 
Traced  outline  maps,  290. 
Training  book  power,  124, 
Training  maxim,  64. 
Training  method,  the,  64. 
Trinity  of  ends,  26. 

Ultimate  ends,  9. 

Ultimate  unity,  1 1. 

Undivided  attention  of  pupils,  144. 

Unequal  progress  of  pupils,  141. 

Unification  in  teaching,  79. 

Union  of  instruction  and  study,  1 19; 
of  methods,  70,  153;  of  oral  and 
written  processes,  260;  of  pro- 
cesses, 194,  195,  211,  260. 

Unit  of  language,  the,  192. 

United  States,  285. 

United  States  History,  299-301 ; 
earlier  introductory  lessons,  299; 
first  year's  systematic  course, 
299;  historic  conceptions  difficult, 
300;  history  of  peoples,  300; 
Ilobbes's  Leviathan,  300;  oral  in- 
struction in  history,  300;  reading 
the  key  to  history,  299;  supple- 
mented by  biography,  299;  the 
history  of  the  nation,  299;  the 
state  as  a  collective  man,  300; 
training  afforded  in  book  mastery, 
299;  use  of  maps  and  illustra- 
tions, 299. 

Universal  truths,  63. 

Utilitarianism,  narrow,  44. 

Utility  of  knowledge,  28. 

Value  of  geography,  273. 
Value  of  philosophy,  12, 
Verbal  memory,  91. 
Vertical  writing,  162. 
Views  of  reading,  two,  183. 
Visualizing  numbers,  244. 
Vital  organs,  anatomy  of,  305. 
Voice  in  concert  exercises,  the,  155. 


INDEX. 


XV 


Voices,   children's,    in    reading    antl 

singing,  156, 
Vowels,  modified  and  obscure,  200. 

Wadsworth,  James,  36,  86. 

Whitney,  W.  D.,  217. 

Woolsey,  Theodore,  70,  1 18. 

Word  drawing,  93.- 

Word  method,  the,  190,  197. 

Word  repetition,  82,  84. 

Writing  new  words,  196;  hrst  les- 
sons in,  211. 

Written  examinations,  172-175. 

Written  exercises,  160-171;  amount 
of  written  work,  165;  ancillary 
.  muscles,  162;  assigned  home 
study,  166;  careless  written  work, 
169;  changes  in  activity,  167; 
correct  use  of  written  forms,  169; 
early  writing  in  modern  schools, 
161 ;  examination  marks  as  ends, 
171;  excessive  use  of  pen  and 
pencil,  162,  163;  feasible  wr'^ten 
work,  167;  home  lessons,  164; 
Hudson  River  valley,  164;  in- 
creasing nervousness,  163;  injury 
to  pupils,  163;  keeping  pupils 
busy,  164;   oral  expression  before 


written,  167;  overtasking  pupils, 
166;  pothook  assumption,  161; 
preparing  lessons  in  writing,  163; 
reproductive  lessons,  168;  school 
pressure  not  spasmodic,  171; 
spelling  drills,  oral  and  written, 
168;  supervision  of  home  work, 
166;  testimony  of  physiology, 
161 ;  tests  not  to  be  made  a  bug- 
bear, 171;  too  much  requirefl, 
165;  too  much  writing  in  elemen- 
tary schools,  162;  union  of  oral 
and  written  tests,  160,  171 ;  use 
of  pen  and  pencil,  160;  variety  of 
work,  167;  vertical  writing,  162; 
writing  in  old-time  schools,  161 ; 
written  examinations  for  promo- 
tion of  pupils,  160;  written 
solution  of  mental  problems  ob- 
jectionable, 168;  written  tt  sts,  169, 
170;    written  work   at  home,  163. 

Written  forms,  skill  m  use  of,  220. 

Written  outlines  of  oral  lessons,  107. 

Written  reviews,  115. 

Written  tests,  94. 

Written  work,  correct,  116. 

Ziller's  central  core,  77,  118. 


A   Complete  System   of  Pedagogy 

IN    THREE    VOLUMES 

By  EMERSON    E.  WHITE,  A.M.,  LL.D. 


THE  ART  OF  TEACHING.     Cloth,  321   pages       .         .       Price,  $1.00 

This  new  work  in  Pedagogy  is  a  scientific  and  practical  considera- 
tion of  teaching  as  an  art.  It  presents  in  a  lucid  manner  the  fundamental 
principles  of  teaching,  and  then  applies  them  in  generic  and  compre- 
hensive methods.  The  closing  chapters  discuss  in  a  masterly  way  the 
teaching  of  reading,  language,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  other 
elementary  branches.  The  author  also  considers  most  helpfully  the 
various  problems  connected  with  teaching,  including  oral  instruction, 
book  study,  class  instruction  and  management,  examinations,  promotion 
t-f  pupils,  etc. 

ELEMENTS  OF   PEDAGOGY.     Cloth,  336  pages     .         .     Price,  $1.00 

This  treatise,  by  unanimous  verdict  of  the  teachers'  profession,  has 
been  accepted  as  the  leading  standard  authority  on  the  subject.  From 
its  first  publication  it  has  met  with  the  greatest  favor,  and  its  wide  cir- 
culation ever  since  has  been  phenomenal.  It  has  been  adopted  in  more 
Normal  Schools,  Teachers'  Institutes,  and  State  Reading  Circles,  than 
any  other  book  of  its  class.  This  wide  circulation  and  popularity  is 
directly  attributable  to  the  intrinsic  value  and  merit  of  the  book  itself 
and  the  reputation  of  its  author,  who  is  everywhere  recognized  as  pre- 
eminently qualified  to  speak  or  write  with  authority  on  educational 
subjects. 

SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT.     Cloth,  320  pages       .         .       Price,  $1.00 

The  first  part  of  this  work  is  devoted  to  school  organization  and 
discipline,  and  the  second  part  to  moral  training.  Principles  are  clearly 
stated  and  aptly  illustrated  by  examples  drawn  largely  from  the  author's 
own  wide  experience.  A  clear  light  is  thrown  on  the  most  important 
problems  in  school  management.  The  necessity  for  moral  training, 
which,  in  the  minds  of  many,  also  involves  religious  instruction,  will 
make  the  second  part  of  this  book  a  welcome  contribution  to  pedagogical 
literature.  The  subject  is  thoroughly  and  wisely  treated,  and  the  mate- 
rials which  are  provided  for  moral  lessons  will  be  highly  appreciated  by 
all  teachers  who  feel  the  importance  of  this  work. 


Copies  sent,  prepaid^  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  the  price. 

American   Book   Company 

New  York  ♦  Cincinnati  ♦  Chicago 

(200) 


White's    Geometry 

By  JOHN   MACNIE,  A.M. 

Edited  by  Emerson   E.  White,  A.M.,  LL.D.,  Author  of   "White's 
Series  of  Mathematics,"  "  White's  School  Management,"  etc. 

White's  Elements  of  Geometry — Plane  and   Solid      .         .         .     $1  25 
White's  Elements  of  Plane  Geometry — Separate       ...  .75 

White's  Key  to   Elements  of  Geometry      .  .  .  .  .        1  00 


This  New  Geometry  is  specially  designed  for  use  in  High  Schools, 
Academies,  and  College  Preparatory  Schools.  In  scope,  it  is  sufRciently 
elementary  for  beginners  in  the  study  and  complete  enough  to  meet 
fully  the  entrance  requirements  of  Colleges,  Universities,  and  Technical 
Schools. 

As  a  text-book  it  represents  the  best  ideals  and  results  of  sound 
mathematical  instruction.  An  endeavor  has  been  made  to  present  the 
elements  of  Geometry  with  a  logical  strictness  approaching  that  of 
Euclid,  while  taking  advantage  of  such  improvements  in  arrangement 
and  notation  as  are  suggested  by  modern  experience.  In  its  preparation 
the  authors  have  adopted  as  guiding  principles  :  (i)  to  leave  no  obscure 
term  undefined  ;  (2)  to  assume  nothing  not  perfectly  evident  ;  (3)  to 
prove  everj'thing  at  all  doubtful  by  reference  to  admitted  principles. 
Great  care  has  been  taken  in  the  wording  of  the  definitions.  In 
the  case  of  a  few  terms  for  which  no  definitions  quite  free  from  objection 
have  as  yet  been  proposed,  those  have  been  chosen  which  are  best  suited 
to  the  comprehension  of  the  beginner.  The  usual  order  of  treatment 
has  been  followed  and  only  such  propositions  and  corollaries  have  been 
admitted  as  are  important  in  themselves  or  have  a  bearing  on  subsequent 
demonstrations  and  studies. 

Exercises  for  original  and  laboratory  work  have  been  carefully 
selected  with  a  view  to  exemplifying  important  principles,  and  are,  with 
few  exceptions,  of  such  slight  difficulty  as  not  to  discourage  the  learner 
of  average  ability.  The  working  exercises  are  graded  and  in  the  first 
sets  ample  assistance  is  afforded  the  student  by  means  of  references  and 
diagrams. 


Copies  of  zvill  be  sen/,  prepaid,  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  the  price. 

American    Book   Company 

New  York  ♦  Cincinnati  ♦  Chicago 


(681 


White's   School   Algebra 


Designed  for  use  in  High  Schools  and  Academies.  By  EmersOxN 
E.  White,  A.M.,  LL.D.,  Author  of  "A  Series  of  Mathe- 
matics," "Elements  of  Pedagogy,"  "School  Management,"  etc. 

Half  Leather,  12mo,  394  pages         .         .         .     $1.00 

This  new  Algebra  combines  in  one  book  a  complete  course  in  the 
study,  sufticiently  elementary  for  beginners  and  comprehensive  enough  to 
fully  meet  the  entrance  requirements  of  the  best  colleges  and  universities. 
The  book  constitutes  a  part  of  the  well-known  and  popular  "  White's 
Series  of  Mathematics."     Its  author  has  long  been  distinguished  as  an 

.'ducational  lecturer  and  writer  of  the  highest  ability  and  is  a  recognized 

■cader  in  the  teaching  profession  in  this  country. 

It  has  been  the  author's  aim  to  prepare  a  School  Algebra  which 
should  be  pedagogically  sound,  as  well  as  mathematically  accurate,  and 
thoroughly  adequate  for  its  place  and  purpose.  He  has  kept  in  mind 
the  fact  that  the  great  majority  of  the  pupils  who  begin  the  study  of 
Algebra  are  too  young  to  master  successfully  a  te.xt-book  designed  for 
advanced  students. 

Some  of  the  distinctive  features  of  this  book  are  :  (i)  The  early 
introduction  and  practical  use  of  the  equation  ;  (2)  the  use  of  arithmet- 
ical approaches  to  algebraic  processes  and  principles  ;  (3)  the  intelligent 
use  of  the  inductive  method  ;  (4)  the  immediate  application  of  facts 
and  principles  in  simple  exercises  for  practice  ;  (5)  the  number,  variety, 
and  character  of  the  exercises  and  problems  designed  to  secure  facility 
and  accuracy  in  algebraic  processes. 


Copies  of  White  s  School  Algebra  ivill  be  sent,  prepaid,  to  any  address  on 
receipt  of  the  price. 

American   Book  Company 

New  York  ♦  Cincinnati  ♦  CViicago 

(60) 


For  Teachers  and  School  Officers 


KING'S  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Developed  from  "  Page's  Mutual  Duties  of  Parents  and  Teachers," 
from  various  Public  Records  and  Documents,  and  from  the  Bulletins 
of  the  National  Bureau  of  Education.     By  Robert  M.  King. 

Cloth,  12mo,  336  pages $1.00 

This  new  work,  original  in  its  scope  and  plan,  presents  in  one 
volume  interesting  and  valuable  expositions  of  the  modern  demands, 
best  methods,  and  most  important  interests  of  our  Public  School 
Systems.  Its  central  idea  is  to  show  the  importance  and  value  of 
co-operation  in  school  work  and  the  mutual  duties  of  teachers,  school 
officers,  and  parents.  It  also  embodies  synopses  of  the  discussions  on 
leading  educational  topics  from  the  various  fugitive  reports  and  manuals 
issued,  from  time  to  time,  by  school  officials  and  State  Departments  of 
Education.  It  will  be  found  an  invaluable  manual  and  guide  for 
school  superintendents,  ofilicers,  and  patrons,  and,  indeed,  for  every  one 
interested  in  educational  work. 

MANN'S  SCHOOL   RECREATIONS  AND  AMUSEMENTS 

By  Charles  W.  Mann,  A.M.,  Dean  of  the  Chicago  Academy. 

Cloth,  12mo,  352  pages $1.00 

This  volume  not  only  opens  up  a  new  field  of  much  needed  informa- 
tion and  direction  in  the  matter  of  physical  training  of  pupils,  but  also 
furnishes  suggestions  for  intellectual  recreations  which  will  greatly  add 
to  the  interest  and  value  of  school  work  and  lend  a  charm  to  school  life 
in  all  its  phases.  Some  of  the  subjects  treated  in  this  work  are:  Morning 
E.xercises,  Care  and  Equipment  of  Schoolrooms,  Singing  Games  and 
Songs,  Indoor  Exercises  and  Outdoor  Games,  Experiments  in  Physics 
and  Chemistry,  Recreations  in  Latin,  Outline  for  Reading  Circles,  etc. 


Copies  of  the  above  books  ivill  he  sent,  prepaid,  to  any  address  on  receipt  of 
the  price  by  the  Publishers  : 

American    Book   Company 

New  York  ♦  Cincinnati  ♦  Chicago 

(204) 


CIVICS    AND    ECONOMICS 


Andrews's  New  Manual  of  the  Constitution 


$1.00 


.75 

.72 

.60 

1.20 


Clark's  Government :  What  It  Is ;  What  It  Does 

Cocker's  Government  of  the  United  States 

Forman's  First  Lessons  in  Civics 

Gregory's  New  Political  Economy 

Laughlin's  Study  of  Political  Economy 

Laughlin's  Elements  of  Political  Economy — Revised     1.20 

Martin's   Civil   Government  in  the   United  States 

— Revised 90 

McCleary's  Studies  in  Civics 1.00 

Nordhoff's   Politics  for  Young   Americans — Revised 

Edition 75 

Peterman's  Civil  Government 60 

Special  editions  of  the  same  for  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Penn- 
sylvania, Ohio,  Michigan,  Iowa,  North  Carolina,  Kentucky, 
Georgia,  Tennessee,  West  Virginia,  Colorado,  and  Oregon. 

Small  and  Vincent's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 

Society 1.80 

Story's    Exposition    of    the    Constitution     of    the 

United  States 90 

Townsend's  Shorter  Course  in  Civil  Government  .       .72 

Townsend's  Analysis  of  Civil  Government       .       .     1.08 

Willoughby's    Rights     and     Duties    of   American 

Citizenship 1.00 


Copies  sent,  prepaid,  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  the  price 

AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY,  Publishers 

NEW  YORK  ♦  CINCINNATI  ♦  CHICAGO 

(187) 


Manual   of  the   Constitution   of  the 
United  States 


By  ISRAEL  WARD  ANDREWS,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
Late  President  of  Marietta  College 

Reset,  and  Revised  to  igoi  by 
HOMER  MORRIS,  LL.B.,  of  the  Cincinnati  Bar. 

Cloth,  12mo,  431  pages Price,  $1.00 

The  development  of  Civil  Government  in  the  United  States  during 
the  past  twenty-five  years  has  rendered  necessary  the  thorough  revision 
and  resetting  of  Andrews's  Manual  of  the  Constitution — a  text-book 
^vhich,  in  spite  of  numerous  competitors  published  during  the  past  decade, 
has  continually  increased  in  favor  with  teachers  and  students. 

The  book  has  been  brought  up  to  date  in  all  particulars — includin* 
especially  the  more  recent  interpretations  of  the  Constitution  by  the 
courts,  and  the  important  statutes  calculated  to  produce  permanent 
political  effect.  The  utmost  care,  however,  has  been  taken  to  keep  to 
the  original  design  of  the  book;  and  those  familiar  with  the  work  wi  • 
find  that  no  violence  has  been  done  to  its  original  character. 

Andrews's  Manual  grew  out  of  the  necessities  and  experiences  oJ 
the  class  room.  For  the  proper  instruction  of  the  student  in  the  im 
portant  subject  of  Civil  Government,  a  clear  exposition  of  the  great 
principles  of  the  Constitution  is  needed,  with  a  summary  of  the  legislative 
provisions  in  which  they  have  been  embodied.  The  author  embodied  in 
the  work  that  kind — and,  so  far  as  space  would  allow,  that  amount — of 
information  on  the  various  topics  which  an  intelligent  citizen  would 
desire  to  possess. 

As  the  value  of  a  work  of  this  kind  depends  in  large  measure  upon 
its  accuracy,  it  is  proper  to  say  that  in  nearly  every  instance  the  state- 
ments touching  the  legislation  or  other  action  of  the  government  have 
been  taken  from  official  publications. 


Copies  sent,  prepaid,  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  price  by  the  Publishers 

American   Book   Company 

New  York  ♦  Cincinnati  *  Chicago 

(i88) 


r' 


-i-«-iuung   Mesearch    Library 

LB  1025   .W58a 

yr 


L  009  618   362   9 


libs 


iUOL; 


